Copyright, License, and Contributors

This work is copyright 2024 HamStudy.org LLC.

License

Web Version

The web version of this book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

You are free to:

Share — copy and redistribute the web version in any medium or format

Under the following terms:

Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.

NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes.

NoDerivatives — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you may not distribute the modified material.

Ebook (PDF/EPUB) & Paperback License

The ebook (PDF/EPUB) and paperback versions are NOT covered under the Creative Commons license above.

These versions are licensed for personal and immediate family use only.

❌ You may not share, distribute, or upload the ebook to any public or private platform.

❌ You may not scan, copy, or digitize the paperback version for redistribution.

❌ You may not sell or profit from any unauthorized copies of this book.

✅ You may sell your personal paperback copy as a used book.

By purchasing this book, you agree to these terms.

You can find all versions of the book for online viewing or purchase at https://hambook.org

Contributors

The following entities have contributed in major ways to this book:

Richard Bateman, KD7BBC – Primary author and mastermind

Ben Loveridge, KF7KGR – Publishing consultant and Chief of Keeping Richard On Task (CKROT)

Norm Goodkin, K6YXH – Content review and editor.

Mitch Berger, N2YIC – Technical reviewer and editor.

Noji Ratzlaff, KN0JI – Creator of the fantastic organizational layout we used

https://claude.ai – Much of the writing was done using Claude

https://chatgpt.com – A lot of ideas and minor text revisions were done with the help of ChatGPT

Also huge thanks to all who have emailed us about corrections or typos!

Introduction

Welcome to the HamStudy Technician License HamBook! Whether you're aiming to get your license quickly or develop a solid foundation in amateur radio, this book is here to help you succeed. Amateur radio (often called "ham radio") unlocks a world of possibilities, from casual chats with local operators to bouncing signals off the moon.

What's Inside

This HamBook contains everything you need to get your Technician Class license:

Clear explanations of technical concepts, from basic electronics to radio wave propagation

Practical information about setting up and operating your first station

Important safety guidelines to keep you and your equipment protected

A straightforward overview of FCC rules and regulations

Practice questions from the actual exam pool

People come to amateur radio for many different reasons. You might be interested in:

Emergency communications and public service

Building and experimenting with radio equipment

Making friends over the airwaves

The technical challenge of bouncing signals off satellites

Or simply having a new way to chat with people while driving

Whatever draws you to amateur radio, this HamBook is designed to help you get licensed and start exploring. You can choose how deeply you want to dig into each topic - some concepts are fascinating to explore in detail, while others you might just need to know enough to pass the exam.

Remember, getting your license is just the first step. Many hams find that their real learning and growth happens once they get on the air and start operating. Whether you choose to study intensively or take a more gradual approach, we're here to help you join the amateur radio community.

Ready to begin? Let's get started!

About Amateur Radio

Amateur radio, often called "ham radio," is more than just a hobby—it's a community of enthusiasts who connect with others, experiment with electronics, and provide vital communication during emergencies. Unlike the internet, cell towers, or the electrical grid, amateur radio can operate independently, keeping you connected no matter where you are or what’s happening around you. Whether you’re chatting with a neighbor, tinkering with a new antenna, or helping out in a crisis, amateur radio opens up a world of possibilities.

You might see "HAM" radio written in all caps, and that’s understandable—there’s been confusion over where the term comes from. Some think it’s an acronym, and while it has been used that way, "ham" actually started as a playful jab at clumsy operators. Over time, it evolved into the friendly term we use today. So, while "HAM" in all caps might irk some old-timers, don’t worry—we won’t give you too much grief. Just know that "ham" works perfectly fine, lowercase and all!

A World of Possibilities

Imagine staying in touch when everything else is down—no cell service, no internet, not even power. With amateur radio, you’re not just using someone else’s network; you’re creating your own. Whether you’re deep in the mountains or in the middle of a city blackout, your radio keeps you connected.

Ham radio operators are known for making things work, even in the toughest conditions. On a remote hike where your phone has no signal, a simple, portable radio can still get you in touch with others. In emergencies, when other communication systems fail, amateur radio becomes a lifeline, linking people and communities.

As a Technician class operator, you'll have access to VHF and UHF frequencies, perfect for local and regional communication. With repeaters, you can extend your range even further, making amateur radio a tool for adventure and exploration, no matter where you are.

More Than Just a Hobby

Sure, amateur radio is fun, but it’s also a vital tool in emergencies. When disasters strike and cell towers go down, ham radio operators often step in to keep communication lines open.

For example, during Hurricane Maria in 2017, amateur radio operators in Puerto Rico provided critical communication support when much of the island's infrastructure was destroyed. They relayed emergency messages, helped coordinate relief efforts, and even assisted in reuniting families who had lost contact during the disaster.

But it’s not just about emergencies. Amateur radio is a community of tinkerers and explorers. You’ll find hams experimenting with new technology, building their own gear, and pushing the limits of what’s possible. Whether you’re in it for the technical challenge, the thrill of independent communication, or the chance to help out in a crisis, amateur radio has something for you.

A Community of Innovators

Ham radio has a long history of innovation. Many of the technologies we take for granted today were developed or refined by amateur radio enthusiasts. Hams have always been at the forefront of what’s possible with wireless technology.

In 2014, a group of hams made headlines by repurposing an old NASA satellite for amateur use. The ISEE-3 satellite, launched in 1978 and long forgotten, was brought back to life by these innovative hams, showcasing the ingenuity that defines the amateur radio community.

A Hobby for Everyone

Whether you’re into the technical side of things, enjoy making long-distance contacts, or just want to be prepared in case of an emergency, amateur radio has something to offer. It’s a hobby that spans generations, bringing together people of all ages who share a love for radio communication.

As you explore amateur radio, you’ll find a community ready to help you learn, grow, and connect. Whether it’s through local club meetings or global contests, there are endless opportunities to make new friends and discover new aspects of the hobby.

The purpose of Amateur Radio

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates and enforces the rules for the Amateur Radio service in the United States and it was established with specific purposes which you may need to know for the exam. These form the basis and purpose of our hobby and service:

Advancing skills in both the technical and communication aspects of radio.

Expanding the pool of trained operators, technicians, and electronic experts.

Enhancing international goodwill through global communications.

Providing a voluntary noncommercial communication service to the public, especially in times of emergency.

Contributing to the advancement of the radio art.

These purposes highlight the multifaceted nature of amateur radio - it's not just a hobby, but a service with important technical, social, and public safety roles. As you progress in amateur radio, you'll find opportunities to fulfill each of these purposes, whether you're experimenting with new technologies, making friends across the globe, or helping your community during emergencies.

Understanding the passion and potential of amateur radio is exciting, but how do you actually get started? The journey begins with the Technician Class license exam—a gateway that might seem daunting but is actually your first real adventure in ham radio. Let's demystify the exam process and show you that with the right approach, you'll be on the airwaves before you know it.

Understanding the Technician License Exam

The exam questions come from publicly available question pools developed by the National Conference of Volunteer Examiner Coordinators (NCVEC). These pools are updated on a regular schedule:

Technician Class pool: Updated every four years (last updated 2022)

General Class pool: Updated every four years (last updated 2023)

Amateur Extra Class pool: Updated every four years (last updated 2024)

The updates are staggered, so only one pool changes each year. This ensures that study materials and exams remain current with evolving technology and regulations.

The Technician Class Question Pool

Before diving into the study material, it's helpful to understand what you're preparing for. The Technician license exam consists of 35 multiple-choice questions chosen from a pool of about 400 possible questions. To pass, you need to answer 26 questions correctly (74%).

Some key points about the exam:

All possible questions and their correct answers are publicly available

Many of the questions simply test your knowledge of terminology or specific numbers you need to remember

Though there is a lot to learn, some of the material is just common sense. Once you learn it you won't forget it easily!

You don't need to be a technical expert to pass - many concepts are practical and straightforward

Questions are grouped into subelements (major topics) which are in turn grouped into sections (minor topics). Each exam draws one question from each section, so if there is a section you just don't understand you can safely skip that one and still pass the exam!

The exam format means that with focused study, most people can prepare for and pass the test much more quickly than one might expect. While some students have passed by simply memorizing the questions and answers, understanding the material will make you a more confident and capable operator once licensed.

Why Is the Question Pool So Comprehensive?

You might wonder why the Technician question pool covers so many topics when you may only be interested in a specific aspect of amateur radio. There are good reasons for this breadth:

Different Paths in Amateur Radio

Amateur radio operators pursue surprisingly different interests under the same license. Possible focus areas include (among others):

Emergency communications and public service

DXing (contacting distant stations around the world)

Digital modes and computer integration

Satellite communications

Contesting

Building and experimenting with equipment

VHF/UHF local communications

First Person View drones and/or model aircraft

Wide area Mesh networking

The question pool tries to ensure all new licensees have at least basic knowledge across these diverse areas, even if you initially only plan to use one aspect of the hobby.

Historical Evolution

The question pool has evolved over decades and is managed by committee. This creates some interesting dynamics:

Changes tend to happen slowly and conservatively

Content may reflect both cutting-edge technology and legacy practices

Removing topics requires convincing evidence it's no longer relevant

The committee strives for consensus across many different perspectives

Focus on What Matters For You

The important takeaway is this: don't get discouraged if parts of the question pool seem irrelevant to your interests. Your strategy should be to:

Learn enough to pass the exam (which this book will help you do)

Understand which topics might be relevant to your specific interests

Know where to find more information about other topics if your interests expand

Remember that you need to answer 26 out of 35 questions correctly, which gives you some flexibility. Even the most experienced hams specialize in certain areas of the hobby - nobody expects you to be an expert in everything!

The beauty of amateur radio is that you can start with whatever interests you most, then explore other facets of the hobby at your own pace after getting licensed.

The moral? This exam isn't as difficult as you might think, and with this book you can choose how deeply you want to learn the material while preparing for your license!

How to Use This HamBook

Welcome to your guide for the Technician Class amateur radio license! This HamBook is designed to support you wherever you are in your amateur radio journey, whether you're looking to quickly get your license or gain a deeper understanding of the technical concepts. Here's how to get the most out of this resource:

Structure of the HamBook

This HamBook is divided into two main parts:

The Science Behind Amateur Radio: This section covers the technical aspects of radio, including electrical principles, radio wave behavior, and antenna basics.

The Person Behind Amateur Radio: Here, we focus on the practical aspects of being a ham, including safety, station operation, and the rules and regulations that govern amateur radio.

Each chapter breaks down topics into digestible segments, with key concepts highlighted for easy reference. Whether you're doing a deep study or looking for quick answers, you'll find what you need.

Different Ways to Use This Book

Everyone learns differently and has different goals. Here are some ways you can use this HamBook:

Quick Path to Getting Licensed

Skim each section first to get a general overview of the concepts

Focus particularly on anything italicized and any "Key Information".

Pay special attention to topics that catch your interest or seem important

Review the practice questions at the end of each section

Read deeper explanations for concepts you find challenging or interesting

Use the HamStudy app alongside the book to track your progress and review the questions efficiently

Keep the book as a reference to explore topics more thoroughly after getting licensed

Final Exam Preparation

Once you've covered the material and are getting close to exam day, here's an effective strategy using the HamStudy app:

First, use Study Mode until you've seen 100% of the questions at least once

Then follow this proven method to efficiently prepare for the exam:

Take a practice exam to identify knowledge gaps

Select "Study Weakest Areas" (in the app) or focus on the categories where you missed the most questions (on the website)

Study those areas for a set amount of time until you feel more confident

Take another practice exam and repeat the process

You're likely ready for the exam when you're consistently scoring 85% or better on practice tests (remember, you only need 74% to pass)

Strategic tip: Since each exam question comes from a different section of the question pool, you could theoretically skip up to 9 sections entirely as long as you master the other 26

Deep Learning Approach

Read each chapter thoroughly before attempting practice questions

Take notes and highlight key concepts, particularly Key Information and anything in italics

Try to relate new concepts to things you already know

Engage with local ham radio clubs to discuss what you're learning

Reference Guide

Keep the book handy after getting licensed

Use the detailed table of contents to quickly find specific topics

Refer back to sections as you encounter them in your ham radio activities

Enhance Your Learning with HamStudy

HamStudy.org and the HamStudy mobile app work seamlessly with this HamBook, providing dynamic practice tailored to what you’re reading and what you struggle with the most.

Study Resources: HamStudy.org provides all the study materials you need for your license exam completely free.

Progress Tracking: See which areas you've mastered and which might need more attention.

Study Mode: Intelligent flash card study reinforces what you're learning.

Study Buttons: At the end of each section in this HamBook, you'll find a "Study this section with HamStudy" button that links to those section-specific questions in HamStudy.

Mobile Option: The HamStudy mobile app offers additional features including:

Enhanced Tracking: Additional insights and tools to optimize your study

Book-Aligned Study: Focus on specific chapters or sections based on this book’s organization

Offline Study: Practice questions anywhere, even without an internet connection

Sharing: Share progress with a mentor or assist others in learning

QR Code to get the HamStudy app
Get the HamStudy App
HamStudy Antenna Icon

Study Tips for Success

Set Realistic Goals: Whether you're aiming to get licensed quickly or take a slower, deeper approach, set goals that work for you.

Use Multiple Methods: Combine reading, app practice, and hands-on experience in whatever mix works best for your learning style.

Connect with Others: Local ham radio clubs can provide support and practical insights, regardless of your study approach.

Practice Tests: Use the HamStudy app to take practice tests when you feel ready. This helps you know when you're prepared for the exam.

Remember, there's no single "right way" to become a ham radio operator. Some people prefer to get their license first and then learn through hands-on experience, while others enjoy understanding every concept before taking the exam. Both approaches are valid! This HamBook is designed to support you regardless of your chosen path.

Whether you're preparing for your exam or using this as a post-license reference, we're glad you're here and look forward to having you join the amateur radio community!

Overview of the Licensing Process

Becoming a licensed amateur radio operator in the United States involves passing one or more exams administered by volunteer examiners. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has established three levels of amateur radio licenses, each building upon the knowledge and privileges of the previous level.

License Classes

Key Information: The FCC currently issues Technician, General, and Amateur Extra class licenses.

Technician Class: This is the entry-level license and the focus of this book. It provides operating privileges on all VHF and UHF amateur bands and some limited privileges on HF bands.

General Class: The next step up, requiring passage of both the Technician and General exams. It grants significantly more HF privileges.

Amateur Extra Class: The highest class of license, requiring passage of all three exams. It provides full privileges on all amateur radio bands.

To progress to a higher class, you must pass the exam for that class as well as all lower classes. For example, to obtain a General Class license, you must pass both the Technician and General exams.

License Issuance, Expiration, and Renewal

Once you pass your exam and your license application is submitted, the FCC will email you instructions to pay the $35 application fee through their online payment portal. After payment is processed, your license typically appears in the FCC database within 1-2 business days, depending on when your payment is received relative to FCC processing schedules.

Key Information: It's important to maintain a valid email address with the FCC, as failure to do so could result in license suspension or revocation.

If the FCC attempts to reach you by email and is unable to do so even after you are licensed they may choose to revoke or suspend your license, so make sure your contact information is always current.

Some applications are flagged for manual (human) review for various reasons; in those cases there may be additional delays in the licensing process beyond what is described here. The VE (Volunteer Examiner) team you test with should be able to help you navigate any challenges!

Key Information: An amateur radio license is valid for ten years from the date of issue.

Your license becomes valid as soon as your operator/station license grant appears in the ULS (Universal Licensing System), the FCC's online license database.

You can renew your license as early as ninety (90) days before it expires by signing in through the FCC license manager website. If you have any issues you can contact the FCC helpdesk using contact information from their website.

Key Information: If your license expires, you have a two-year grace period to renew it. During this grace period, you may not transmit until the renewal is processed.

If you do not renew your license before the end of that grace period you will lose your license and call sign and will have to take the exam again to become licensed again.

If you were once licensed and had a General or Amateur Extra class license you can regain your previous privileges after just passing the Technician class license exam – talk with your VE team for more information!

Finding Exam Sessions

There are several ways to find local exam sessions:

HamStudy.org: Visit https://hamstudy.org/sessions to search for both in-person and online exam sessions.

ARRL Website: The American Radio Relay League (ARRL) maintains a list of exam sessions at https://www.arrl.org/find-an-amateur-radio-license-exam-session.

Local Amateur Radio Clubs: Many clubs host regular exam sessions. Check with clubs in your area for upcoming dates.

Remember that even if you find the exam session through HamStudy or another website they are usually just listing exam sessions for a specific team of Volunteer Examiners -- you need to contact that team directly with any questions. If you register for the exam via HamStudy.org, for example, you should receive a registration email that you can reply to in order to contact the VE team.

Remote Exams

Since 2020, remote exam sessions have become widely available. These allow you to take your exam from home using video conferencing software. To participate in a remote exam:

Ensure you have a reliable internet connection and a webcam.

Have a clean, private space for taking the exam.

Be prepared to show your exam environment to the examiners.

Visit https://ham.study/sessions/online to find available remote sessions.

When registering for a remote exam, carefully read all instructions provided by the exam team. Pay attention to any specific software requirements or pre-exam procedures they may have.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T1C09:What is the grace period for renewal if an amateur license expires?

Two years

T1C11:If your license has expired and is still within the allowable grace period, may you continue to transmit on the amateur radio bands?

No, you must wait until the license has been renewed

T1C08:What is the normal term for an FCC-issued amateur radio license?

Ten years

T1C01:For which license classes are new licenses currently available from the FCC?

Technician, General, Amateur Extra

T1C10:How soon after passing the examination for your first amateur radio license may you transmit on the amateur radio bands?

As soon as your operator/station license grant appears in the FCC’s license database

T1C07:Which of the following can result in revocation of the station license or suspension of the operator license?

Failure to provide and maintain a correct email address with the FCC

T1C04:What may happen if the FCC is unable to reach you by email?

Revocation of the station license or suspension of the operator license

Part 1: The Science Behind Amateur Radio

How can a small radio device send your voice across towns, states, or even around the world? The answer lies in the fascinating scientific principles of electricity, radio waves, and communication technology.

Amateur radio is more than just talking into a microphone—it's a remarkable blend of physics, engineering, and human innovation. In this section, we'll explore the fundamental scientific principles that transform electrical signals into long-distance communication.

The chapters ahead will break down complex concepts into understandable pieces:

Electrical Principles: Understanding how electrons flow and power communication

Electrical Components: Exploring the building blocks of radio circuits

Radio Wave Principles: Exploring how electromagnetic waves travel and interact

Antennas: The critical interface that turns electrical signals into radio signals

Whether you're preparing for the Technician class exam or simply curious about radio technology, these chapters will provide both the answers you need and the understanding behind them. We'll use everyday analogies and practical examples to demystify the science, showing how technical principles become powerful communication tools.

Don't worry if some concepts seem challenging at first. Every experienced ham operator started exactly where you are now—curious and eager to learn. As you progress, you'll build a foundation of knowledge that transforms scientific principles into the magic of radio communication.

So let's get started and explore the incredible science that makes amateur radio possible!

Chapter 1: Electrical Principles

Welcome to the foundation of amateur radio—electrical principles! In this chapter, we’ll unravel the fascinating world of electricity that powers all our radio adventures. Don’t worry if you’re not an electrical engineer; we’ll break these concepts down into bite-sized, easy-to-understand pieces.

We'll start with the basics - what is electricity, and how does it behave? You'll learn about voltage, current, and resistance, the three musketeers of electrical circuits. We'll explore Ohm's Law, the fundamental relationship between these quantities, and see how it applies to real-world radio situations.

As we progress, we'll delve into the differences between AC and DC, understand power in electrical systems, and introduce you to the concepts of capacitance and inductance. These principles form the backbone of how radio waves are generated, transmitted, and received.

By the end of this chapter, you'll have a decent grasp of electrical fundamentals that will serve you well throughout your amateur radio journey. So, let's flip the switch and energize our learning!

Section 1.1: Electrical Basics

Electricity is the lifeblood of amateur radio. To understand how our equipment works and to operate it effectively, we need to grasp some fundamental electrical concepts. Let's start with the basics: conductors and insulators.

Conductors and Insulators

In the world of electricity, materials fall into two main categories: conductors and insulators.

Conductors are materials that allow electrical charges to flow through them easily. Think of them as highways for electrical charges. Most metals are good conductors because they have many free electrons, and the charges on those electrons can move around easily. This is why we use metals like copper in our radio equipment - those free electrons make it easy for electrical current to flow. A fun fact: silver is actually a better conductor than copper, but its high price makes it impractical for most applications!

Insulators, on the other hand, are materials that resist the flow of electricity. They act like barriers, keeping electricity where we want it and preventing it from going where we don't want it. Materials like glass, plastic, and rubber are good insulators.

You can find examples of conductors and insulators working together all around you. Look at any electrical cord in your house - the copper wires inside are conductors, carrying electricity to your appliances, while the plastic coating around the wires is an insulator, keeping that electricity safely contained. In amateur radio, we use both conductors and insulators together in similar ways to build safe and effective stations.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T5A07:Why are metals generally good conductors of electricity?

They have many free electrons

T5A08:Which of the following is a good electrical insulator?

Glass

Section 1.2: Electrical Units and Quantities

To understand how our radios work, we need to familiarize ourselves with some basic electrical quantities. Let's start with the "big three": voltage, current, and resistance.

Voltage, Current, and Resistance

While we often compare electricity to water flowing through pipes, this analogy isn't perfect. Let's look at what's really happening:

Voltage ( EE E or VV V ) is like electrical "pressure" - it's the force that causes electron flow in a circuit, and we measure it in volts (V).

Voltage is also sometimes called electromotive force (EMF), because it creates the conditions that allow current to flow.

Voltage is always measured between two points. When we say a car battery is 12V, we mean there's a 12-volt difference between its positive and negative terminals.

Current ( II I ) is the flow of electrons in an electric circuit, measured in amperes (A). Here's what's interesting:

While individual electrons move quite slowly through a conductor (about half an inch per minute!), the movement of electrical charges is nearly instantaneous - like a long tube filled with marbles. Push one in at one end, and one pops out the other end almost immediately.

In amateur radio, you might deal with:

Milliamps (mA) in low-power circuits

A few amps powering a mobile transceiver

15-20 amps for a high-power HF amplifier

Resistance ( RR R ) is how much a material opposes current flow by converting electrical energy into heat, measured in ohms ( Ω\Omega \Omega ). Think of resistance as a fundamental property that affects how electrical energy moves through a circuit:

Conductors like copper wire have very low resistance, allowing current to flow easily

Insulators like rubber or glass have very high resistance, blocking current flow

Resistors are components with specific, controlled resistance values used to:

Limit current in LED circuits to prevent burnout

Divide voltage in measurement circuits

Convert electrical energy to heat in applications like dummy loads

These three quantities are fundamentally linked as explained by Ohm's Law, which we'll cover in Section 1.3.

Voltage Drop

When current flows through a resistive component or wire, some voltage is "used up" in the process. This decrease in voltage is called voltage drop.

It's similar to water pressure decreasing as water flows through a pipe - the longer or narrower the pipe, the more pressure is lost. In electrical terms, when current flows through resistance, voltage decreases along the path.

This concept is important in amateur radio because:

Long power cables to your radio can result in lower voltage at the radio than at the power source

Higher current draw (like during transmission) increases voltage drop

This is why most mobile ham installations use thick, short power cables - to minimize voltage drop when operating equipment that draws significant current. This is a direct application of how resistance affects current and voltage in real-world amateur radio setups.

Frequency

Now that we understand these basic DC electrical concepts, let's look at alternating current and frequency.

In amateur radio, we often deal with alternating current (AC), which smoothly changes direction in a sine wave pattern, unlike DC which flows constantly in one direction.

AC occurs naturally when a magnet rotates near a wire. As the magnet's north pole approaches the wire, current flows one way. When the south pole approaches, current flows the opposite way. This continuous rotation creates the smooth sine wave pattern shown in the diagram. This is the basic principle behind generators that produce the electricity powering our homes and the alternating currents in our radio circuits.

The diagram shows two complete cycles of AC - each starting at zero, rising to a positive peak, falling through zero to a negative peak, then returning to zero. The number of these cycles completed per second is called frequency, measured in Hertz (Hz).

Some examples:

Household power: 60 Hz (60 cycles per second)

AM radio stations: around 1000 kHz (1,000,000 cycles per second)

FM radio and many ham bands: MHz range (millions of cycles per second)

Understanding frequency is crucial in amateur radio because it determines which bands you can use and how far your signals can travel.

Power

Power is the rate at which electrical energy is used or generated in a circuit. It's measured in watts (W) and is calculated using the Power Law, which we'll cover in Section 1.3.

In amateur radio, power is important because:

More power = Greater transmission range. A stronger signal reaches farther.

More power = More heat. High-power radios need proper cooling.

More power = Higher energy demands. Your power supply must handle your radio's needs.

Decibels

Instead of always talking in watts, hams often use decibels (dB) to express power changes. The decibel is a logarithmic unit that makes it much easier to express and work with very large or very small ratios. Instead of multiplying power levels, we can simply add or subtract dB values, which is particularly useful in radio systems where signals might be amplified and attenuated multiple times.

Here's what decibels mean in practice:

+3 dB means power doubles.

-3 dB means power is cut in half.

-6 dB means power is cut in half twice (divided by four).

+10 dB means power increases by ten times.

+20 dB means power increases by one hundred times.

Some real-world examples:

A power increase from 5W to 10W is a +3 dB gain.

A decrease from 12W to 3W is a -6 dB loss.

Going from 20W to 200W? That's a +10 dB boost.

The beauty of the decibel scale is that it compresses large numbers into a more manageable range, making it easier to understand and discuss signal gains and losses throughout a radio system.

AC and DC

Electricity comes in two types:

Direct Current (DC) flows in one direction, like from a battery or power supply. Most radios run on 12V DC.

Alternating Current (AC) constantly reverses direction, alternating between positive and negative directions, like household power.

Most ham gear runs on DC power, but radio signals themselves are AC—they alternate at radio frequencies. Radio frequency (RF) signals are simply AC signals at very high frequencies used for wireless communication.

Resistance opposes all types of current flow, including direct current, alternating current, and RF current.

Impedance

Key Information: Impedance is the opposition to AC current flow and, like resistance, it's measured in ohms ( Ω\Omega \Omega ).

In a DC circuit, resistance simply opposes the flow of electricity. But in an AC circuit, the story gets more complex.

Capacitance describes the ability to store energy in an electric field and is measured in farads (F).

Inductance describes the ability to store energy in a magnetic field and is measured in henrys (H).

In electrical circuits that include capacitors and/or inductors, the effect these components have on alternating current will vary with frequency. This frequency-dependent opposition to current flow is called reactance.

Inductive reactance increases as frequency increases

Capacitive reactance decreases as frequency increases

Impedance combines both resistance and reactance, giving us the total opposition to AC current flow in a circuit.

A resonant circuit consists of an inductor and a capacitor connected either in series (one after another) or parallel (side by side). At a specific frequency, the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal in magnitude but opposite in effect, effectively canceling each other out. This creates an electrical balance that allows signals at that frequency to pass easily (in series) or be blocked (in parallel). That frequency is called the resonant frequency, and this phenomenon is known as resonance.

Amateur radio equipment is typically designed to work with specific impedance values. For example, most transceivers are designed to connect to a 50-ohm system. When impedances aren't properly matched:

Power transfer becomes less efficient

Some energy may be reflected back toward the source

Equipment may need to reduce power output to protect itself

These principles apply to many parts of your radio system, including antennas, which exhibit properties of resistance, capacitance, and inductance.

Metric Prefixes and Electrical Units

In amateur radio, we often deal with very large or very small numbers. Instead of writing out all the zeros, we use metric prefixes:

Prefix | Symbol | Multiplier | Example
pico | p | 10−1210^{-12} 10^{-12} | 1 pF = 0.000000000001 F
nano | n | 10−910^{-9} 10^{-9} | 1 nF = 0.000000001 F
micro | μ | 10−610^{-6} 10^{-6} | 1 μF = 0.000001 F
milli | m | 10−310^{-3} 10^{-3} | 1 mV = 0.001 V
(none) | - | 10010^0 10^0 | 1 A = 1 A
kilo | k | 10310^3 10^3 | 1 kHz = 1,000 Hz
mega | M | 10610^6 10^6 | 1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz
giga | G | 10910^9 10^9 | 1 GHz = 1,000,000,000 Hz

Key Information:

The abbreviation kHz stands for "kilohertz".

The abbreviation MHz stands for "megahertz".

Note: The F (farad) and H (henry) units refer to capacitance and inductance as discussed above, which we'll explore in more detail in Section 2.1.

Here are some common conversions that may appear on the exam:

Original | Equivalent | Question ID
1.5 amperes | 1500 milliamperes | T5B01
1500 kHz | 1.5 MHz | T5B02
1 kilovolt | 1000 volts | T5B03
1 microvolt | 0.000001 volts | T5B04
500 milliwatts | 0.5 watts | T5B05
3000 milliamperes | 3 amperes | T5B06
3.525 MHz | 3525 kHz | T5B07
1,000,000 picofarads | 1 microfarad | T5B08
28400 kHz | 28.400 MHz | T5B12
2425 MHz | 2.425 GHz | T5B13

All of the conversions in this table are worth memorizing for the exam!

Wrapping It All Up

Understanding these electrical quantities will help you make sense of your radio gear and pass the exam. As you continue your ham radio journey, these ideas will come up again and again, so keep this knowledge handy!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T5A05:What is the electrical term for the force that causes electron flow?

Voltage

T5A01:Electrical current is measured in which of the following units?

Amperes

T5A03:What is the name for the flow of electrons in an electric circuit?

Current

T5A04:What are the units of electrical resistance?

Ohms

T5A12:What describes the number of times per second that an alternating current makes a complete cycle?

Frequency

T5A06:What is the unit of frequency?

Hertz

T5A10:Which term describes the rate at which electrical energy is used?

Power

T5A02:Electrical power is measured in which of the following units?

Watts

T5B09:Which decibel value most closely represents a power increase from 5 watts to 10 watts?

3 dB

T5B11:Which decibel value represents a power increase from 20 watts to 200 watts?

10 dB

T5B10:Which decibel value most closely represents a power decrease from 12 watts to 3 watts?

-6 dB

T5A09:Which of the following describes alternating current?

Current that alternates between positive and negative directions

T5A11:What type of current flow is opposed by resistance?

A:

Direct current

B:

Alternating current

C:

RF current

All these choices are correct

T5C12:What is impedance?

The opposition to AC current flow

T5C05:What is the unit of impedance?

The ohm

T5C01:What describes the ability to store energy in an electric field?

Capacitance

T5C02:What is the unit of capacitance?

The farad

T5C03:What describes the ability to store energy in a magnetic field?

Inductance

T5C04:What is the unit of inductance?

The henry

T6D11:Which of the following is a resonant or tuned circuit?

An inductor and a capacitor in series or parallel

T5C13:What is the abbreviation for kilohertz?

kHz

T5C07:What is the abbreviation for megahertz?

MHz

T5B01:How many milliamperes is 1.5 amperes?

1500 milliamperes

T5B02:Which is equal to 1,500,000 hertz?

1500 kHz

T5B03:Which is equal to one kilovolt?

One thousand volts

T5B04:Which is equal to one microvolt?

One one-millionth of a volt

T5B05:Which is equal to 500 milliwatts?

0.5 watts

T5B06:Which is equal to 3000 milliamperes?

3 amperes

T5B07:Which is equal to 3.525 MHz?

3525 kHz

T5B08:Which is equal to 1,000,000 picofarads?

1 microfarad

T5B12:Which is equal to 28400 kHz?

28.400 MHz

T5B13:Which is equal to 2425 MHz?

2.425 GHz

Section 1.3: Electrical Laws (and Math)

Okay, let's get into some of the basic math and electrical laws you'll use all the time in amateur radio. Don't worry—this isn't rocket science (though many rocket scientists probably use this as well!). We're talking about Ohm's Law and the Power Law, which are fundamental principles of electronics. They work together perfectly, and once you get the hang of them, you'll see they're not that hard to understand.

But First... Don't Panic About the Math!

A lot of people see math questions and immediately start stressing—but there's no reason to panic. At most, you'll see two math-related questions on your exam: one from T5C (power formulas) and one from T5D (Ohm's Law). And guess what? You can miss up to 9 questions and still pass!

So if this section just isn't clicking for you, don't worry about it—skip it and focus on the parts that make more sense. But if you take a little time to understand these formulas, you might find that they're actually pretty simple and can help you in real-world radio troubleshooting.

Ohm's Law

First up is Ohm's Law, the fundamental principle of everything electrical. It's all about how voltage, current, and resistance are related in a circuit. The law itself is simple:

E=I×RE = I \times R E%20=%20I%20\times%20R Ohm's Law Circle

Where:

EE E is the voltage (electromotive force) in volts (V)

II I is the current in amperes (A)

RR R is the resistance in ohms (Ω)

Since it's a simple formula, you can rearrange it to solve for any of the three values using the circle diagram on the right! To use this helper:

Cover up the value you want to find

The remaining values show you how to calculate it (side by side means multiply, above / below means divide)

Cover E: multiply I×RI \times R I%20\times%20R

Cover I: divide ER\frac{E}{R} \frac{E}{R}

Cover R: divide EI\frac{E}{I} \frac{E}{I}

Voltage is sometimes written with VV V (voltage) instead of EE E (electromotive force or EMF). Electromotive force is another term for voltage and is measured in volts (V). Many prefer to use EE E because VV V is also used for velocity in many engineering formulas.

In plain English, Ohm's Law says:
"The voltage across a component is equal to the current flowing through it times its resistance."

Or, using a water analogy:
Voltage is like water pressure, pushing current (the water flow) through resistance (the pipe size).

Example 1

You have a 10-ohm resistor, and 2 amps of current are running through it. According to Ohm's Law:

E=I×RE=2A×10ΩE=20V\begin{align*} E &= I \times R\\ E &= 2A \times 10\Omega\\ E &= 20V \end{align*} \begin{align*}E%20&=%20I%20\times%20R\\E%20&=%202A%20\times%2010\Omega\\E%20&=%2020V\end{align*}

So, you'd need 20 volts to push 2 amps through that 10-ohm resistor.

Example 2

You have a 12-volt battery hooked up to a circuit with a total resistance of 4 ohms. To figure out the current flowing through the circuit:

I=ERI=12V4ΩI=3A\begin{align*} I &= \frac{E}{R}\\ I &= \frac{12V}{4\Omega}\\ I &= 3A \end{align*} \begin{align*}I%20&=%20\frac{E}{R}\\I%20&=%20\frac{12V}{4\Omega}\\I%20&=%203A\end{align*}

That's 3 amps of current flowing through the circuit.

The Power Law

Next up is the Power Law. This tells you how much power (in watts) your circuit is using, based on the voltage and current. Power is how fast your circuit is consuming energy, and here's the formula:

P=I×EP = I \times E P%20=%20I%20\times%20E Power Law Circle

Where:

PP P is the power in watts (W)

II I is the current in amperes (A)

EE E is the voltage in volts (V)

Easy as PIE! Just like with Ohm's Law, there's a helpful circle diagram for power calculations.

The same principle applies:

Cover what you want to calculate

The remaining values show you the formula

Cover P: multiply I×EI \times E I%20\times%20E

Cover I: divide PE\frac{P}{E} \frac{P}{E}

Cover E: divide PI\frac{P}{I} \frac{P}{I}

Though you won't need it on the exam, you can rearrange this formula and even combine it with Ohm's Law to find any missing value if you have two known values:

P=I2×RP=E2R\begin{align*} P &= I^2 \times R\\ P &= \frac{E^2}{R}\\ \end{align*} \begin{align*}P%20&=%20I^2%20\times%20R\\P%20&=%20\frac{E^2}{R}\\\end{align*}

For example, if you know the voltage and resistance, you can find the current using Ohm's Law, then plug that into the Power Law to find power. This is really useful when figuring out how much power your transmitter or other radio equipment is using.

Let's look at some specific examples that might appear on the exam:

Example 1: Power from voltage and current

How much power is delivered by a voltage of 13.8 volts DC and a current of 10 amperes?

P=E×IP=13.8V×10AP=138 watts\begin{align*} P &= E \times I\\ P &= 13.8V \times 10A\\ P &= 138 \text{ watts}\\ \end{align*} \begin{align*}P%20&=%20E%20\times%20I\\P%20&=%2013.8V%20\times%2010A\\P%20&=%20138%20\text{%20watts}\\\end{align*}

Example 2: Another power calculation

How much power is delivered by a voltage of 12 volts DC and a current of 2.5 amperes?

P=E×IP=12V×2.5AP=30 watts\begin{align*} P &= E \times I\\ P &= 12V \times 2.5A\\ P &= 30 \text{ watts}\\ \end{align*} \begin{align*}P%20&=%20E%20\times%20I\\P%20&=%2012V%20\times%202.5A\\P%20&=%2030%20\text{%20watts}\\\end{align*}

Example 3: Finding current from power and voltage

How much current is required to deliver 120 watts at a voltage of 12 volts DC?

I=PEI=120W12VI=10 amperes\begin{align*} I &= \frac{P}{E}\\ I &= \frac{120W}{12V}\\ I &= 10 \text{ amperes}\\ \end{align*} \begin{align*}I%20&=%20\frac{P}{E}\\I%20&=%20\frac{120W}{12V}\\I%20&=%2010%20\text{%20amperes}\\\end{align*}

Why Does This Matter?

You might be wondering, "Why should I care about all this?" Well, whenever you work with electronics, you will use these laws all the time. Whether you're figuring out how much power your transmitter is using, picking the right resistor for a circuit, or troubleshooting why something isn't working, Ohm's Law and the Power Law are your best friends.

Voltage Drop: Remember voltage drop from Section 1.2? Ohm's Law gives us the formula: Voltage Drop=I×R\text{Voltage Drop} = I \times R \text{Voltage%20Drop}%20=%20I%20\times%20R . This explains why higher voltage systems (like 24V vs 12V) experience less impact from the same drop - the percentage of lost voltage is smaller. This is also why mobile installations use thick, short power cables - to minimize R and therefore minimize the drop.

Power Rating: Every electrical component has a limit on how much power it can handle before it overheats. The Power Law helps you make sure your components stay within safe limits.

Efficiency: When setting up power systems and antennas, understanding how voltage, current, and power interact helps you design more efficient systems.

The more you practice using these, the easier they become. Soon enough, you'll be solving electrical problems on the fly!

Exam Question Examples

This is a complete summary of all of the questions you could encounter on the exam which use these formulas.

Question | Equation | Answer
T5C08: Power formula for a DC circuit | P=E×IP = E \times I P%20=%20E%20\times%20I |
T5C09: Power from 13.8 volts and 10 amperes | P=13.8V×10AP = 13.8V \times 10A P%20=%2013.8V%20\times%2010A | P=138WP = 138W P%20=%20138W
T5C10: Power from 12 volts and 2.5 amperes | P=12V×2.5AP = 12V \times 2.5A | P=30WP = 30W P%20=%2030W
T5C11: Current required for 120 watts at 12V | I=120W12VI = \frac{120W}{12V} I%20=%20\frac{120W}{12V} | I=10AI = 10A I%20=%2010A
T5D01: Formula for current in a circuit | I=ERI = \frac{E}{R} I%20=%20\frac{E}{R} |
T5D02: Formula for voltage in a circuit | E=I×RE = I \times R E%20=%20I%20\times%20R |
T5D03: Formula for resistance in a circuit | R=EIR = \frac{E}{I} R%20=%20\frac{E}{I} |
T5D04: Resistance with 90 volts and 3 amperes | R=90V3AR = \frac{90V}{3A} R%20=%20\frac{90V}{3A} | R=30ΩR = 30\Omega R%20=%2030\Omega
T5D05: Resistance with 12 volts and 1.5 amperes | R=12V1.5AR = \frac{12V}{1.5A} R%20=%20\frac{12V}{1.5A} | R=8ΩR = 8\Omega R%20=%208\Omega
T5D06: Resistance with 12 volts and 4 amperes | R=12V4AR = \frac{12V}{4A} R%20=%20\frac{12V}{4A} | R=3ΩR = 3\Omega R%20=%203\Omega
T5D07: Current with 120 volts and 80 ohms | I=120V80ΩI = \frac{120V}{80\Omega} I%20=%20\frac{120V}{80\Omega} | I=1.5AI = 1.5A
T5D08: Current with 200 volts and 100 ohms | I=200V100ΩI = \frac{200V}{100\Omega} I%20=%20\frac{200V}{100\Omega} | I=2AI = 2A I%20=%202A
T5D09: Current with 240 volts and 24 ohms | I=240V24ΩI = \frac{240V}{24\Omega} I%20=%20\frac{240V}{24\Omega} | I=10AI = 10A I%20=%2010A
T5D10: Voltage across 2 ohms and 0.5 amperes | E=0.5A×2ΩE = 0.5A \times 2\Omega E%20=%200.5A%20\times%202\Omega | E=1VE = 1V E%20=%201V
T5D11: Voltage across 10 ohms and 1 ampere | E=1A×10ΩE = 1A \times 10\Omega E%20=%201A%20\times%2010\Omega | E=10VE = 10V E%20=%2010V
T5D12: Voltage across 10 ohms and 2 amperes | E=2A×10ΩE = 2A \times 10\Omega E%20=%202A%20\times%2010\Omega | E=20VE = 20V E%20=%2020V

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T5D03:What formula is used to calculate resistance in a circuit?

R = E / I

T5D01:What formula is used to calculate current in a circuit?

I = E / R

T5D02:What formula is used to calculate voltage in a circuit?

E = I × R

T5D12:What is the voltage across a 10-ohm resistor if a current of 2 amperes flows through it?

20 volts

T5D06:What is the resistance of a circuit that draws 4 amperes from a 12-volt source?

3 ohms

T5C08:What is the formula used to calculate electrical power (P) in a DC circuit?

P = I × E

T5C09:How much power is delivered by a voltage of 13.8 volts DC and a current of 10 amperes?

138 watts

T5C10:How much power is delivered by a voltage of 12 volts DC and a current of 2.5 amperes?

30 watts

T5C11:How much current is required to deliver 120 watts at a voltage of 12 volts DC?

10 amperes

T5D04:What is the resistance of a circuit in which a current of 3 amperes flows when connected to 90 volts?

30 ohms

T5D05:What is the resistance of a circuit for which the applied voltage is 12 volts and the current flow is 1.5 amperes?

8 ohms

T5D07:What is the current in a circuit with an applied voltage of 120 volts and a resistance of 80 ohms?

1.5 amperes

T5D08:What is the current through a 100-ohm resistor connected across 200 volts?

2 amperes

T5D09:What is the current through a 24-ohm resistor connected across 240 volts?

10 amperes

T5D10:What is the voltage across a 2-ohm resistor if a current of 0.5 amperes flows through it?

1 volt

T5D11:What is the voltage across a 10-ohm resistor if a current of 1 ampere flows through it?

10 volts

Chapter 2: Electrical Components

Every radio is made up of basic building blocks - electrical components that work together to make communication possible. In this chapter, we'll introduce you to these components and help you understand their roles in amateur radio equipment.

You don't need to be an electrical engineer to understand this stuff! We'll keep things simple and practical, focusing on what these components do rather than complex theory. It's just like getting to know the different tools in a toolbox - you don't need to know how to build them, just what they're used for.

We'll look at:

Basic parts like resistors and capacitors

How components appear in circuit diagrams

What different components do in radio equipment

The goal isn't to make you an electronics expert - it's to help you understand what's happening inside your radio equipment and to prepare you for your license exam. By the end of this chapter, you'll be familiar enough with these components to understand basic radio concepts and troubleshooting.

Let's get started with these building blocks of amateur radio!

Section 2.1: Basic Components

When you peek inside any radio equipment, you'll find a fascinating array of electronic components working together in harmony. Let's start our exploration with passive components - the workhorses of electronic circuits that don't require an external power source to function.

Resistors: The Traffic Cops of Electronics

Key Information: A resistor opposes the flow of current in any circuit (including a DC circuit).

Resistors are small cylindrical components with colored bands that indicate their resistance value. These color codes help electronics enthusiasts determine the component's resistance.

Common applications in amateur radio include:

Dividing voltages to protect delicate components

Limiting current to sensitive parts

Setting operating points in amplifier circuits

Capacitors and Inductors: The Energy Storage Twins

Just as a battery stores energy chemically, capacitors and inductors also store energy—but in completely different ways. These components are like siblings: they complement each other while having their own unique characteristics.

Capacitors: Electric Field Energy Storage

Key Information:

A capacitor stores energy in an electric field

A capacitor consists of conductive surfaces (usually metal plates) separated by an insulator. This physical structure is fundamental to how capacitors work and is frequently tested.

Capacitors come in various shapes and sizes, from tiny ceramic discs to large cylindrical types. Their capacity to store charge is measured in farads (F), though most radio circuits use microfarads (µF) or picofarads (pF).

In amateur radio, capacitors are used to:

Smooth out fluctuations in power supplies (AC to DC converters)

Block unwanted signals or noise, including keeping RF out of audio circuits

Help select or tune specific frequencies in a circuit

Inductors: Magnetic Field Energy Storage

Key Information:

Inductors store energy in a magnetic field

They are typically constructed as a coil of wire

They are used with capacitors to make a resonant circuit

While capacitors store energy in an electric field, inductors store energy in a magnetic field that forms around the coil when current flows through it. This complementary relationship makes them perfect partners in radio circuits.

Inductors play important roles in radio circuits, including:

Signal filtering

Impedance matching

Energy storage

Together, capacitors and inductors form the foundation of tuned circuits that select specific frequencies—the heart of radio technology.

Understanding Circuit Configurations

Key Information: The fundamental differences between series and parallel circuits are:

In series circuits, current is the same through all components

In parallel circuits, voltage is the same across all components

These two circuit types behave very differently:

Series Circuits: Components are connected end-to-end in a single path. If one component fails, the entire circuit stops functioning.

Parallel Circuits: Components are connected across the same two points. If one path fails, current can still flow through the other paths.

Potentiometers: The Adjustable Resistors

Key Information: A potentiometer is used to control resistance and is often used as a volume control.

A potentiometer is a variable resistor. As you turn the knob or slide the control, the resistance changes. In amateur radio, they are commonly used for:

Volume control

Adjusting transmit power levels

Adjusting the squelch control

Switches: The Circuit Controllers

Key Information:

For your exam, you need to know about an SPDT (Single Pole, Double Throw) switch. This type of switch allows a single circuit to be switched between one of two other circuits.

You will also need to be able to identify a SPST (Single Pole, Single Throw) switch on a circuit diagram.

A SPST switch is a simple on/off switch that controls one input. A SPDT switch is similar, but instead of merely turning the input on or off it switches it between two outputs. Think of an SPDT switch like a railroad track switch with one input track (the pole) that can connect to either of two output tracks (the throws). When you flip the switch, you're choosing which output track the input will connect to.

Switches are described using two key terms:

Poles: The number of separate circuits a switch can control

Throws: The number of positions each circuit can be connected to

For example, in an SPDT switch:

Single Pole: Controls one circuit

Double Throw: Can connect that circuit to either of two positions

In amateur radio, switches are crucial for:

Turning equipment on and off

Selecting between different antennas

Changing bands or modes on a transceiver

Activating or deactivating specific features of a radio

Putting it together

Understanding these passive components - resistors, capacitors, inductors, potentiometers, and switches - is crucial for grasping how electronic circuits work. They're the building blocks that allow your radio equipment to function, controlling and shaping electrical signals in precise ways. As you continue your journey in amateur radio, you'll encounter these components again and again, each time gaining a deeper appreciation for their roles in making radio communication possible.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T6A01:What electrical component opposes the flow of current in a DC circuit?

Resistor

T6A04:What electrical component stores energy in an electric field?

Capacitor

T6A05:What type of electrical component consists of conductive surfaces separated by an insulator?

Capacitor

T6A06:What type of electrical component stores energy in a magnetic field?

Inductor

T6A07:What electrical component is typically constructed as a coil of wire?

Inductor

T6D08:Which of the following is combined with an inductor to make a resonant circuit?

Capacitor

T5D13:In which type of circuit is DC current the same through all components?

Series

T5D14:In which type of circuit is voltage the same across all components?

Parallel

T6A03:What electrical parameter is controlled by a potentiometer?

Resistance

T6A02:What type of component is often used as an adjustable volume control?

Potentiometer

T6A08:What is the function of an SPDT switch?

A single circuit is switched between one of two other circuits

T6A12:What type of switch is represented by component 3 in figure T-2?

Single-pole single-throw

Section 2.2: Semiconductors

Semiconductors are special materials that make modern electronics possible. They're special materials that can act as both a conductor (letting electricity flow) and an insulator (blocking electricity), depending on how they're used. This unique property allows us to create all sorts of devices that control electricity in useful ways.

Diodes: One-Way Electronic Streets

Key Information:

A diode allows current to flow in only one direction

The cathode lead (negative side) is often marked with a stripe

The forward voltage drop is lower in some diode types than others

A diode has two electrodes:

Anode: The positive connection

Cathode: The negative connection, marked with a stripe

Think of a diode like a one-way street—current can only flow in one direction. But even when it’s flowing the right way, a diode doesn’t conduct perfectly. It takes a small amount of voltage just to get current moving; this is called the forward voltage drop (you might remember the concept of voltage drop from Section 1.2). That lost voltage turns into heat as electrical energy becomes thermal energy. Different types of diodes drop different amounts—for example, Schottky diodes typically have a lower forward voltage drop than regular silicon diodes.

One common use of diodes is in a rectifier, which changes alternating current (AC) into a varying direct current (DC) signal.

Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs): Diodes That Shine

Key Information: An LED produces light when forward current flows through it.

LEDs are special diodes that light up when current flows through them. They're commonly used as indicator lights on radio equipment - that power light on your transceiver is an LED!

Transistors: The Heart of Modern Electronics

Key Information:

Transistors can be used as electronic switches

Transistors can provide power gain (the ability to amplify signals)

A transistor contains three regions of semiconductor material

FET stands for Field Effect Transistor

There are two main types of transistors, and it's important to know the names of their parts:

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Three parts: Emitter, Base, and Collector

Often used for amplifying signals

Field-Effect Transistor (FET)

Three parts: Gate, Drain, and Source

Often used as voltage-controlled switches

Understanding Gain: When we talk about transistors providing "gain," we mean their ability to amplify a signal - making a small signal bigger. This is one of their most important functions in radio equipment.

Integrated Circuits (ICs): Many Components in One

Key Information: An integrated circuit combines several semiconductors and other components into one package.

Think of an IC as a tiny electronic city, where many components (transistors, diodes, resistors, etc.) work together in a single chip. This technology makes modern radio equipment possible by packing complex circuits into small spaces.

Semiconductor Review

Let's review the key semiconductor components and their main features:

Diodes

One-way current flow

Cathode marked with stripe

Different types have different voltage drops

LEDs

Light up with forward current

Used as indicators

Transistors

Three semiconductor regions

Two main types with different terminal names:

BJT: Emitter, Base, Collector

FET: Gate, Drain, Source

Can amplify signals (gain)

Can act as switches

Integrated Circuits

Multiple components in one package

Make complex circuits possible

Remember: While semiconductors can seem complex, understanding their basic functions and terminal names will help you both with the exam and in your amateur radio activities.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T6B02:What electronic component allows current to flow in only one direction?

Diode

T6B06:How is the cathode lead of a semiconductor diode often marked on the package?

With a stripe

T6B01:Which is true about forward voltage drop in a diode?

It is lower in some diode types than in others

T6B09:What are the names for the electrodes of a diode?

Anode and cathode

T6D01:Which of the following devices or circuits changes an alternating current into a varying direct current signal?

Rectifier

T6B07:What causes a light-emitting diode (LED) to emit light?

Forward current

T6D07:Which of the following is commonly used as a visual indicator?

LED

T6B03:Which of these components can be used as an electronic switch?

Transistor

T6B10:Which of the following can provide power gain?

Transistor

T6B04:Which of the following components can consist of three regions of semiconductor material?

Transistor

T6B08:What does the abbreviation FET stand for?

Field Effect Transistor

T6B12:What are the names of the electrodes of a bipolar junction transistor?

Emitter, base, collector

T6B05:What type of transistor has a gate, drain, and source?

Field-effect

T6B11:What is the term that describes a device's ability to amplify a signal?

Gain

T6D09:What is the name of a device that combines several semiconductors and other components into one package?

Integrated circuit

Section 2.3: Other Components

As we venture further into the world of electronic components, we encounter a diverse cast of characters that play vital roles in amateur radio equipment. Let's meet some of these unsung heroes that work alongside the resistors, capacitors, and semiconductors we've already befriended.

Transformers: The Voltage Jugglers

Key Information: A transformer can be used to change 120V AC power to a higher or lower AC voltage for other uses.

Picture a seesaw at a playground, where a small child on one end can lift a much heavier adult on the other. Transformers work on a similar principle, but with electrical energy instead of playground physics.

Transformers consist of two or more coils of wire wound around a common core, usually made of iron. They're the masters of voltage conversion, capable of stepping voltage up or down while maintaining (almost) the same power. This ability makes them crucial in various amateur radio applications:

Power supplies: Transformers help convert the high voltage from your wall outlet to the lower voltages your radio equipment needs.

Impedance matching: In audio circuits, transformers can match the impedance of different stages for optimal power transfer. Between a transmission line and an antenna, a transformer can help match the transmission line impedance to the impedance of the antenna.

Antenna tuners: Some antenna tuners use transformers to help match your antenna system to your radio.

Fun fact: The largest transformer in the world weighs over 800 tons and can handle about 1 billion watts of power - enough to supply electricity to a small city! Thankfully, the transformers in your ham shack are much, much smaller.

Relays: The Electromagnetic Switches

Key Information: A relay is an electrically-controlled switch.

Relays and transistors both act as switches, but relays do it the old-fashioned way—with moving parts. When current flows through a coil inside the relay, it generates a magnetic field that pulls contacts open or closed. It’s like a miniature drawbridge controlled by electricity, allowing one circuit to turn another on or off by physically making or breaking the connection. You can often even hear the click when it switches!

In amateur radio, relays shine in several applications:

Antenna switching: Relays can quickly switch between different antennas or between transmit and receive modes.

Amplifier control: They help manage the complex sequencing required when using high-power amplifiers.

Automatic antenna tuners: Many autotuners use a bank of relays to switch different combinations of inductors and capacitors.

Relay revelation: The first practical relay was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835. It paved the way for long-distance telegraphy, which you could consider a predecessor to amateur radio!

Types of Wire: More Than Just Conductors

When setting up your ham shack or building equipment, you'll encounter various types of wire. Let's look at a few important ones:

Key Information: Shielded wire is used to prevent coupling of unwanted signals to or from the wire.

Shielded Wire: This is your signal's bodyguard. Shielded wire typically has one or more insulated inner conductors, surrounded by a conductive layer (the shield) and then an outer insulating jacket. The shield is usually made of braided wire or metal foil.

Why use shielded wire? Here are the main reasons:

Prevent coupling of unwanted signals: The shield acts like a barrier, keeping external electromagnetic interference (EMI) from getting into your signal path. It's like having a force field around your signal!

Contain your own signals: Just as it keeps unwanted signals out, the shield also keeps your signals from leaking out and potentially interfering with other nearby equipment.

Reduce noise: In audio applications, shielded wire can significantly reduce annoying hum and noise picked up from nearby electrical fields.

Standard Wire: Your basic conductor, usually copper, that comes in different gauges (thicknesses). The thicker the wire, the more current it can safely carry.

Stranded Wire: Made up of multiple thin strands of wire twisted together. It's more flexible than solid wire, making it great for applications where the wire needs to bend frequently.

Magnet Wire: This thin wire is coated with a layer of insulation. It's often used for winding coils and inductors.

Choosing the right type of wire for each application in your ham shack is crucial for optimal performance and safety. It's all part of the fun of building and customizing your own gear!

From transformers and relays to different types of wire, each component in your radio equipment plays a crucial role. Understanding these basic building blocks is key to comprehending how your gear works, troubleshooting issues, and even designing your own circuits.

As you continue your journey in amateur radio, you'll encounter these components again and again in various configurations. Each time you key up your mic or tune across the bands, remember that you're witnessing the harmonious interplay of these electrical elements, working together to make the magic of radio communication possible.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T6D06:What component changes 120 V AC power to a lower AC voltage for other uses?

Transformer

T6D02:What is a relay?

An electrically-controlled switch

T6D03:Which of the following is a reason to use shielded wire?

To prevent coupling of unwanted signals to or from the wire

Section 2.4: Circuit Diagrams: Putting It All Together

By now, you've gotten to know a lot of different components—resistors, capacitors, transistors, and more. You've seen their symbols sprinkled throughout earlier sections, and hopefully, they're starting to feel familiar. Now it's time to gather everything in one place and focus on how these symbols are used in circuit diagrams.

Key Information: A schematic is an electrical wiring diagram that uses standard component symbols. The most important thing to remember is that schematics show component connections accurately.

Think of a schematic as a map for electronics. Instead of using pictures of actual parts, it uses standard symbols to show how components connect. Once you know how to read them, circuit diagrams are your key to understanding any electronic device, no matter how complicated.

Essential Components and Their Symbols

Let's review the key components you'll encounter in circuit diagrams. Pay special attention to how they control or affect current flow in a circuit.

Basic Components

Component | Description | Symbol
Resistor | That familiar zig-zag line represents a component that controls current flow. You'll see these everywhere in circuits. | Resistor schematic diagram
Variable Resistor (Potentiometer) | Like a regular resistor, but with an arrow showing you can adjust its value. | Potentiometer schematic symbol
Capacitor | Those parallel lines store electrical energy. You'll see both polarized (with a curved line) and non-polarized versions. | Capacitor schematic diagram
Inductor | A coil of wire which stores energy in a magnetic field | Inductor schematic Symbol
Transformer | Two coils side by side show energy transfer between circuits. | Transformer schematic Symbol
Variable Inductor | A coil with an arrow showing you can adjust its value. | Variable Inductor schematic symbol

Active Components

Component | Description | Symbol
Transistor | These workhorses control current flow and provide amplification. The arrow shows current direction. | NPN Transistor Schematic Symbol
Diode | As seen in the Section 2.2, the arrow points towards negative (cathode) | Diode schematic diagram with anode / cathode labeled
LED (Light Emitting Diode) | Like a regular diode but with arrows showing it emits light. | LED schematic diagram with anode / cathode labeled

Power and Indicators

Component | Description | Symbol
Battery | Long and short lines show positive and negative terminals. | Power Supply Schematic Symbol
Lamp | A light bulb, or lamp. | Lamp Lamp Schematic Symbol
Antenna | A line with smaller lines at an angle represents an antenna, where signals enter or leave the circuit. | Antenna Schematic Symbol

Reading Circuit Diagrams

When looking at a schematic:

Start at the power source (usually a battery)

Follow the connections between components

Notice how components are labeled (R1, C1, etc.)

Pay attention to component values when shown

Remember: While schematics might look complicated at first, they're just maps showing how components connect. With practice, you'll be reading them like a pro!

Practical Tips

Look for common patterns in circuits

Pay attention to component labels

Follow the current path from power source through components

Remember that connection points are shown by dots where lines meet

As a Technician Class operator you won't need to know this stuff in depth, but there are a few questions you might see on the exam which require you to identify a component by its symbol – make sure you look over them carefully so you know what to look for!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T6C01:What is the name of an electrical wiring diagram that uses standard component symbols?

Schematic

T6C12:Which of the following is accurately represented in electrical schematics?

Component connections

T6D10:What is the function of component 2 in figure T-1?

Control the flow of current

T6C02:What is component 1 in figure T-1?

Resistor

T6C08:What is component 9 in figure T-2?

Variable resistor

T6C06:What is component 6 in figure T-2?

Capacitor

T6C09:What is component 4 in figure T-2?

Transformer

T6C10:What is component 3 in figure T-3?

Variable inductor

T6C03:What is component 2 in figure T-1?

Transistor

T6C07:What is component 8 in figure T-2?

Light emitting diode

T6C05:What is component 4 in figure T-1?

Battery

T6C04:What is component 3 in figure T-1?

Lamp

T6C11:What is component 4 in figure T-3?

Antenna

Chapter 3: Radio Wave Principles

Ever wondered how your voice can travel through thin air to reach another radio operator? In this chapter, we'll explore radio waves - the invisible carriers that make amateur radio possible. Don't worry, we'll keep it practical and straightforward!

We'll look at:

How wavelength and frequency work together

The different parts of the radio spectrum and how we use them

Why some radio signals travel farther than others

Different ways to send information over radio waves

How digital technology fits into the picture

You'll learn enough about these topics to understand how your radio works and to make good operating decisions. We won't get lost in complex physics - instead, we'll focus on what you need to know to be an effective operator and pass your exam.

By the end of this chapter, you'll understand why some bands work better for local chats while others can reach around the world, and you'll be ready to make the most of your radio privileges.

Let's explore the fascinating world of radio waves!

Section 3.1: Frequency and Wavelength

Imagine you're watching waves at the beach. Some waves come in quickly, one after another, while others roll in more slowly with greater distance between them. This difference is all about frequency—how many waves arrive in a given time. Radio waves work in a similar way, but instead of water, they're electromagnetic waves traveling through space at the speed of light.

What is RF?

Key Information: RF (Radio Frequency) refers to radio signals of all types.

You've probably heard the term RF tossed around, but what does it actually mean? RF stands for Radio Frequency – basically, it's a fancy way of saying "radio signals." RF covers all types of radio signals, whether they're used for voice, data, or other forms of wireless communication.

As we discussed in Chapter 1, radio frequency energy (RF) is a form of alternating current (AC), but at much higher frequencies than household electricity. Instead of moving electrons back and forth in a wire, like AC in your home, RF travels as electromagnetic waves through space, carrying signals across short and long distances.

Whether you're tuning in to your favorite broadcast station, chatting on a repeater, or sending data over a satellite link, you're working with RF. It's the bread and butter of all radio communication, and it's what makes all this cool stuff possible.

The Nature of Radio Waves

Key Information:

A radio wave has two components: electric and magnetic fields

These fields are at right angles to each other

Radio waves travel at the speed of light in free space (approximately 300,000,000 meters per second)

Polarization

Key Information: The orientation of the electric field defines a radio wave's polarization.

Think of a radio wave moving through space like a rope being waved up and down:

If the electric field moves up and down, the wave is vertically polarized

If it moves side to side, the wave is horizontally polarized

This is crucial because your antenna needs to match this orientation for best reception.

Wavelength and Frequency

Key Information:

Wavelength gets shorter as frequency increases

To find wavelength in meters, use this formula: 300 divided by frequency in megahertz

Amateur radio bands are often identified by their approximate wavelength in meters

Radio waves come in all sorts of sizes. The size of a radio wave—its wavelength—is directly related to its frequency, and understanding this relationship is key to understanding amateur radio bands.

Wavelength is the physical distance a radio wave travels while completing one full cycle. When you hear about the "2-meter band" or the "70-centimeter band," you're hearing about the approximate wavelength of the signals in that band.

The radio spectrum is divided into several frequency ranges that are important to ham radio operators:

HF (High Frequency): 3-30 MHz, with wavelengths from 100 meters down to 10 meters

Includes our 80m, 40m, 20m, 15m, and 10m bands

Often allows for long-distance communication due to ionospheric propagation

VHF (Very High Frequency): 30-300 MHz, with wavelengths from 10 meters down to 1 meter

Includes our popular 6m and 2m bands

Primarily used for regional communication, with occasional long-distance openings

UHF (Ultra High Frequency): 300-3000 MHz, with wavelengths from 1 meter down to 10 centimeters

Includes our 70cm and 33cm bands

Typically used for local communication and specialized applications

The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength. This inverse relationship means that as frequency increases, wavelength decreases proportionally. A signal at 144 MHz (2m band) has twice the frequency and half the wavelength of a signal at 72 MHz.

Here's how to calculate wavelength (which we often refer to with the variable lambda, or λ):

Wavelength (λ)=300Frequency in MHz (f)\text{Wavelength (}\lambda\text{)} = \frac{300}{\text{Frequency in MHz (}f\text{)}} \text{Wavelength%20(}\lambda\text{)}%20=%20\frac{300}{\text{Frequency%20in%20MHz%20(}f\text{)}} Wavelength/Frequency formula Circle

Like when we talked about Ohm's law, we can make a simple circle diagram for this relationship as well, though we need to use the symbols for brevity:

To use this helper:

Cover up the variable you want to find

The remaining pieces show you how to calculate it

Cover λ (wavelength): divide 300frequency\frac{300}{frequency} \frac{300}{frequency}

Cover ƒ (frequency): divide 300wavelength\frac{300}{wavelength} \frac{300}{wavelength}

For example, let's calculate the wavelength for the 2-meter band (144 MHz):

Wavelength=300144=2.08 meters \begin{align*} \text{Wavelength} &= \frac{300}{144}\\ &= 2.08 \text{ meters} \end{align*} \begin{align*}\text{Wavelength}%20&=%20\frac{300}{144}\\&=%202.08%20\text{%20meters}\end{align*}

That's why we call it the 2-meter band!

Resonance and Antenna Design

When an antenna's length matches the wavelength—or certain specific fractions of it, like a quarter wavelength—it resonates like a tuning fork. This physical matching creates optimal conditions for the antenna to absorb or emit electromagnetic energy at that specific frequency, resulting in much more efficient signal transmission and reception.

For example, a half-wave dipole antenna for the 2-meter band would be about 1 meter long (half of 2.08 meters). We'll explore this more when we discuss antennas!

Better Understanding, Better Results!

Understanding these relationships helps you:

Choose the right antenna length for your frequency

Match antenna polarization to incoming signals

Understand why different bands behave differently

Convert between frequency and wavelength easily

Every time you tune your radio or adjust your antenna, you're working with these fundamental principles. Remember that radio waves:

Travel at the speed of light

Have electric and magnetic fields at right angles

Have wavelengths that get shorter as frequency increases

Can be polarized vertically or horizontally

These concepts will come up again and again in your amateur radio adventures!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T5C06:What does the abbreviation “RF” mean?

Radio frequency signals of all types

T3B03:What are the two components of a radio wave?

Electric and magnetic fields

T3B01:What is the relationship between the electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave?

They are at right angles

T3B04:What is the velocity of a radio wave traveling through free space?

Speed of light

T3B11:What is the approximate velocity of a radio wave in free space?

300,000,000 meters per second

T3B02:What property of a radio wave defines its polarization?

The orientation of the electric field

T3B05:What is the relationship between wavelength and frequency?

Wavelength gets shorter as frequency increases

T3B06:What is the formula for converting frequency to approximate wavelength in meters?

Wavelength in meters equals 300 divided by frequency in megahertz

T3B07:In addition to frequency, which of the following is used to identify amateur radio bands?

The approximate wavelength in meters

Section 3.2: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Think about how light behaves: a sunset casts long, soft shadows, a flashlight beam moves in a straight line, and a laser pointer is sharp but easily blocked. Radio waves work in a similar way, depending on their wavelength.

As amateur radio operators, we get to use specific sections of the electromagnetic spectrum, each with its own unique properties. The key ranges you need to know are:

HF (High Frequency): 3 to 30 MHz

VHF (Very High Frequency): 30 to 300 MHz

UHF (Ultra High Frequency): 300 to 3000 MHz

Wavelength and Propagation: Shadows and Light

Imagine you’re outside on a sunny day:

HF waves are like the glow of a sunset—long, soft, and able to bend around obstacles. Just like sunset light wraps around buildings and trees, HF waves can bend over mountains and reflect off the atmosphere to travel incredible distances.

VHF waves are like a flashlight beam—they move in straight lines and can pass through some obstacles, but they don’t bend as much. If something large is in the way (like a hill or building), the signal gets blocked.

UHF waves are like a laser pointer—very short, direct, and easily blocked by dense materials like concrete and metal. Unlike lower frequencies, they don't bend around obstacles well. However, these waves excel in urban environments because they readily reflect off surfaces like walls and buildings, creating multiple paths to reach their destination. This reflection characteristic makes them great for indoor and city communication, though they don't travel as far as VHF or HF.

Understanding the Bigger Picture

While the exam focuses on the HF, VHF, and UHF bands, it helps to zoom out a bit.

The electromagnetic spectrum includes all types of electromagnetic radiation, from the long waves used in radio to the short bursts of gamma rays. Radio waves are just one slice of this spectrum—one that happens to be useful for communication.

What’s fascinating is that waves we encounter in everyday life, like microwaves, infrared heat, and even visible light, are all fundamentally the same kind of energy: electromagnetic waves. They just differ in frequency and wavelength. The frequencies we use with ham radio live in the lower-frequency end of that spectrum, but they're all part of the same physical phenomenon.

Different Bands for Different Purposes

Different frequency ranges have different characteristics that make them useful for various types of communication:

HF (3-30 MHz)

Long-distance communication

Global contacts possible

Used for international broadcasting

VHF (30-300 MHz)

Local and regional communication

FM repeaters

Line-of-sight communication

UHF (300-3000 MHz)

Local communication

More resistant to noise

Good for urban areas

Beyond the Test: Other parts of the radio spectrum include:

Lower frequencies (like the "AM broadcast band" below HF)

Higher frequencies (microwaves above UHF)

Each range has unique properties that make it suitable for different uses

Understanding these frequency ranges is crucial for amateur radio operation. When you're choosing which band to use for communication, you'll need to know what frequencies you're working with and what to expect from them.

Remember: For the exam, focus on knowing the three main ranges (HF, VHF, UHF) and their frequency limits. The rest is helpful background that will make more sense as you get into the hobby!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T3B10:What frequency range is referred to as HF?

3 to 30 MHz

T3B08:What frequency range is referred to as VHF?

30 MHz to 300 MHz

T3B09:What frequency range is referred to as UHF?

300 to 3000 MHz

Section 3.3: Understanding Amateur Radio Bands

Now that we understand what the electromagnetic spectrum is, let's focus specifically on the portions allocated to amateur radio operators. The frequencies we have been assigned are not arbitrary - they're carefully allocated to provide a variety of propagation characteristics and capabilities.

The Amateur Radio Band Plan

Amateur radio frequencies are organized into "bands" based on their wavelengths. For example, the "2-meter band" refers to frequencies in the 144-148 MHz range, where the wavelength is approximately 2 meters. These band designations provide a quick way to reference different frequency ranges and their general characteristics.

The bands available to radio amateurs are carefully allocated through international agreements to provide a variety of propagation characteristics. This thoughtful allocation gives amateurs access to frequencies that can:

Travel around the world (HF)

Provide reliable regional communications (VHF)

Support higher-bandwidth local operations (UHF/microwave)

HF Bands (3-30 MHz)

As a Technician, you'll only have limited access to HF, primarily on the 10-meter band (28 MHz), but understanding how these frequencies behave is still important.

The most distinctive characteristic of HF bands is their ability to provide long-distance communications without infrastructure. This happens because HF waves can be refracted by the ionosphere, allowing them to return to Earth hundreds or thousands of miles away from the transmitter.

Key Information: A beacon is defined as an amateur station transmitting communications for the purposes of observing propagation or related experimental activities.

Beacon stations are particularly important on HF bands where conditions constantly change. These automated stations transmit regularly on known frequencies, allowing amateurs around the world to monitor propagation conditions. By listening for distant beacons, you can determine if a band is "open" for long-distance communications.

VHF Bands (30-300 MHz)

The VHF spectrum represents a transition zone between the globally-reaching HF bands and the strictly local UHF bands.

VHF bands like 6 meters (50-54 MHz) occasionally experience enhanced propagation that can provide surprising long-distance contacts, while the popular 2-meter band (144-148 MHz) provides reliable regional communications that are less affected by changing ionospheric conditions.

These bands are ideal for consistent regional communications within a range of roughly 50-100 miles depending on terrain and antenna height.

For most new Technician class operators, the 2-meter band will likely become your primary operating band. Its reliable characteristics, abundance of repeaters, and wide availability of affordable equipment make it the perfect entry point for new hams. While we'll explore the operational aspects of this band in Chapter 7, it's worth noting now that this band forms the backbone of local amateur radio activity in most areas.

UHF Bands (300-3000 MHz)

The UHF bands represent a different paradigm in radio communications. While the inability to use ionospheric propagation might seem like a limitation, it actually provides several advantages:

More predictable coverage areas

Less interference from distant stations

More stable day-to-day performance

Greater bandwidth availability

These characteristics make UHF bands like 70 centimeters (420-450 MHz) excellent for local networks, digital modes, and urban communications where reliability is more important than distance.

Along with the 2-meter band, the 70-centimeter band (420-450 MHz) will be one of your most frequently used bands as a new Technician. Many modern handheld radios cover both bands, and the 70cm band offers additional repeater options in congested areas where 2-meter frequencies might be limited. Together, these two bands (2m and 70cm) will likely form the foundation of your early amateur radio experience.

Band Selection Considerations

The "best" band depends entirely on what you're trying to accomplish:

When Distance Matters:

HF bands can provide global reach when conditions are favorable

Lower VHF bands (6 meters) occasionally offer surprising long-distance openings

Upper VHF and UHF bands require infrastructure like repeaters for distance

When Reliability Matters**:

UHF and VHF provide more consistent day-to-day performance

Less affected by solar conditions and time of day

More predictable coverage areas

When Equipment Size Matters**:

Higher frequencies allow for smaller antennas

UHF mobile and handheld antennas can be very compact

HF operation typically requires larger antenna systems

As a new Technician, the vast majority of your initial operations will be on VHF and UHF bands, particularly 2 meters and 70 centimeters. These bands offer accessible equipment, abundant repeaters, and active local communities. Even as operators advance to higher license classes, many continue to use VHF and UHF frequencies for their day-to-day communications. We'll discuss the practical aspects of operating on these different bands in detail in Chapter 7.

Remember that amateur radio offers a tremendous range of frequencies to explore. While some bands might be better suited for certain applications, each offers unique opportunities and challenges that make our hobby so diverse and engaging.

In the next section, we'll examine exactly how radio signals travel through these different bands, exploring the fascinating propagation phenomena that make amateur radio communications possible over various distances and conditions.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T1A06:What is the FCC Part 97 definition of a beacon?

An amateur station transmitting communications for the purposes of observing propagation or related experimental activities

Section 3.4: How Signals Travel

Now that we understand the different amateur radio bands, let's explore how signals actually travel through them. The way radio waves propagate varies dramatically depending on their frequency and environmental conditions, creating fascinating possibilities for communication.

When you transmit a signal, it doesn't simply travel in a straight line like a laser beam. Radio waves can bend, bounce, scatter, and penetrate obstacles in ways that sometimes seem almost magical. Understanding these propagation mechanisms is key to successful amateur radio communications.

Key Information: Basic Wave Behavior Across Amateur Bands

The ionosphere can refract or bend HF and VHF radio waves

The radio horizon is farther than the visual horizon because the atmosphere refracts radio waves slightly

Long-distance ionospheric propagation is far more common on HF than on VHF/UHF

UHF signals are rarely heard beyond their radio horizon because they're usually not propagated by the ionosphere

Ground Wave Propagation

Beyond the Test: Ground wave propagation is like dragging a rope across a field - the signal follows the Earth's surface. While this isn't directly tested, it helps explain why some frequencies travel better over ground than others, particularly at lower frequencies.

Line-of-Sight (LOS) Propagation

Line-of-sight is like being able to see someone across a field - if you can see them, you can probably communicate with them. However, several important effects can help or hinder this basic propagation:

Key Information - Multipath Effects:

VHF signal strengths can vary greatly when moving just a few feet because multipath propagation cancels or reinforces signals

Picket fencing is the rapid flutter on mobile signals due to multipath propagation

When radio signals travel from transmitter to receiver, they often take multiple paths:

Some signals go directly

Others bounce off buildings, mountains, or other objects

These different paths can combine at your antenna:

When the signals arrive in phase, they strengthen each other

When they arrive out of phase, they can cancel each other

Moving your antenna even slightly can change this relationship

This is why you might hear a mobile signal rapidly cutting in and out as you drive - like looking through a picket fence.

Key Information - Working Around Obstacles:

When buildings block a repeater signal, you can often communicate by finding a path that reflects signals to the repeater

Knife-edge diffraction allows radio signals to travel beyond obstructions

Just because you can't see your target doesn't mean you can't reach it:

Reflections: Like bouncing a ball off a wall, your signal can bounce off buildings or other surfaces to reach a repeater

Knife-edge diffraction: Radio waves can bend around sharp edges of obstacles (like mountains or buildings), similar to how water flows around a rock in a stream

Sky Wave Propagation

Key Information:

Irregular fading of signals is caused by random combining of signals arriving via different paths

Best time for 10-meter band F region propagation: from dawn to shortly after sunset during high sunspot activity

During peak sunspot cycle, 6 and 10 meters can use F region propagation

Think of sky wave propagation like bouncing a ball off the ceiling to reach someone across the room. The ionosphere acts as our "ceiling" in the sky, but instead of a hard surface, it's a region of charged particles that bends (or refracts) radio waves back toward Earth. Because the ionosphere isn't uniform, signals may take different paths, causing variations in signal strength.

For simplicity, this bending effect is often called "bouncing" or "reflection", though in reality, it's a gradual refraction through layers of the ionosphere that eventually sends the signal downward.

Different layers of the ionosphere affect different frequencies

Time of day and solar activity change how well it reflects signals

Multiple signal paths can cause fading as they combine in different ways

Auroral Effects: Signals received via auroral reflection are distorted and signal strength varies considerably . This is because the aurora is like a shimmering, moving curtain that reflects signals unpredictably.

Sporadic E Propagation

Key Information: Sporadic E causes occasional strong signals on the 10, 6, and 2 meter bands from beyond the radio horizon .

Think of Sporadic E like catching a lucky bounce off a cloud - it happens occasionally and can give you unexpected long-distance contacts. While you can't predict exactly when it will occur, it's a regular feature of VHF propagation.

Tropospheric Ducting

Key Information:

Caused by temperature inversions in the atmosphere

Allows VHF and UHF communications to ranges of approximately 300 miles regularly

Imagine a tunnel in the sky that can carry your signal much farther than usual. Temperature inversions create these "ducts" that can guide VHF and UHF signals far beyond their normal range, making long-distance contacts possible on bands that usually work only for local communication.

Meteor Scatter

Key Information: The 6 meter band is best suited for meteor scatter communications .

When meteors burn up in the atmosphere, they leave brief trails that can reflect radio signals. It's like playing ping-pong with a shooting star - the reflections are brief but can allow contacts over surprising distances. The 6 meter band works particularly well for this type of communication.

Environmental Effects

Different environmental factors affect different frequencies in various ways.

Key Information:

Precipitation can decrease range at microwave frequencies

Fog and rain have little effect on signals in the 10 meter and 6 meter bands

UHF and microwave signals are absorbed by vegetation

Multipath propagation can increase error rates in data transmissions

Understanding these effects helps you:

Choose appropriate frequencies for different weather conditions

Position antennas to minimize absorption by trees and buildings

Account for potential data errors in digital communications

Data Communications

When using digital modes, multipath propagation can be particularly troublesome because signals arriving via different paths can interfere with each other, increasing error rates. This is why digital modes often include error detection and correction mechanisms.

Propagation Review

All these propagation methods work together to make radio communication possible. Understanding them helps you:

Choose the right band for your desired communication distance

Know when conditions might be best for long-distance contacts

Troubleshoot communication problems

Take advantage of different propagation modes

Remember: While certain specific propagation effects are important for the exam, understanding how they all work together will make you a better operator. Try to visualize how each type of propagation works across the different amateur radio bands we discussed in the previous section. This knowledge will help you choose the right bands and times for the communications you want to establish.

In the next section, we'll explore how we combine these radio wave principles with different modulation methods to transmit voice, data, and other information through the airwaves.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T3A11:Which region of the atmosphere can refract or bend HF and VHF radio waves?

The ionosphere

T3C11:Why is the radio horizon for VHF and UHF signals more distant than the visual horizon?

The atmosphere refracts radio waves slightly

T3C02:What is a characteristic of HF communication compared with communications on VHF and higher frequencies?

Long-distance ionospheric propagation is far more common on HF

T3C01:Why are simplex UHF signals rarely heard beyond their radio horizon?

UHF signals are usually not propagated by the ionosphere

T3A01:Why do VHF signal strengths sometimes vary greatly when the antenna is moved only a few feet?

Multipath propagation cancels or reinforces signals

T3A06:What is the meaning of the term “picket fencing”?

Rapid flutter on mobile signals due to multipath propagation

T3A05:When using a directional antenna, how might your station be able to communicate with a distant repeater if buildings or obstructions are blocking the direct line of sight path?

Try to find a path that reflects signals to the repeater

T3C05:Which of the following effects may allow radio signals to travel beyond obstructions between the transmitting and receiving stations?

Knife-edge diffraction

T3A08:What is a likely cause of irregular fading of signals propagated by the ionosphere?

Random combining of signals arriving via different paths

T3C09:What is generally the best time for long-distance 10 meter band propagation via the F region?

From dawn to shortly after sunset during periods of high sunspot activity

T3C10:Which of the following bands may provide long-distance communications via the ionosphere’s F region during the peak of the sunspot cycle?

6 and 10 meters

T3C03:What is a characteristic of VHF signals received via auroral backscatter?

They are distorted and signal strength varies considerably

T3C04:Which of the following types of propagation is most commonly associated with occasional strong signals on the 10, 6, and 2 meter bands from beyond the radio horizon?

Sporadic E

T3C08:What causes tropospheric ducting?

Temperature inversions in the atmosphere

T3C06:What type of propagation is responsible for allowing over-the-horizon VHF and UHF communications to ranges of approximately 300 miles on a regular basis?

Tropospheric ducting

T3C07:What band is best suited for communicating via meteor scatter?

6 meters

T3A07:What weather condition might decrease range at microwave frequencies?

Precipitation

T3A12:What is the effect of fog and rain on signals in the 10 meter and 6 meter bands?

There is little effect

T3A02:What is the effect of vegetation on UHF and microwave signals?

Absorption

T3A10:What effect does multi-path propagation have on data transmissions?

Error rates are likely to increase

Section 3.5: Modulation Modes and Bandwidth

Imagine you're trying to send a message to a friend across a dark field using a laser pointer. You might blink it on and off, vary its brightness, or switch between different colored lasers (red, green, blue) to communicate. That's exactly what we're doing in radio! Radio waves and visible light are both forms of electromagnetic (EM) waves—they're cousins in the same energy family, just at different frequencies.

The color of a laser is determined by its frequency—red has a lower frequency than green or blue. Similarly, in radio, we work with different frequencies that we can't see. When we talk about radio modulation, we're talking about how we manipulate these invisible waves to carry our voice or data. Let's explore these different ways of manipulating radio waves and how much radio spectrum space (bandwidth) each method needs.

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

In Amplitude Modulation (AM), we vary the strength (amplitude) of a radio wave to carry information. Think of it like changing the brightness of the laser, rapidly increasing or decreasing the power of the light in order to convey information.

When we vary the amplitude (intensity of the light) rapidly enough, something interesting happens: the signal creates additional frequencies (colors) slightly above and below the main frequency. These are called sidebands, and they actually contain the information you're transmitting. The main carrier wave itself doesn't contain any information — our hypothetical laser pointer's main color would be there but we'd see other colors above and below the main color as well and those are what would give us the message.

While AM isn't the most common mode in amateur radio, you'll still encounter it in broadcast radio and some specialized communications. Most analog television signals, including Amateur Television (ATV), use AM.

Frequency Modulation (FM) and Phase Modulation (PM)

Key Information:

FM/PM are commonly used for VHF packet radio transmissions

FM/PM are the primary modes for VHF and UHF voice repeaters

In Frequency Modulation (FM), we keep the amplitude (brightness) constant but vary the frequency (color) of the radio wave. It's like using a light that maintains the same brightness but shifts between different colors to send your message—a specific color shift represents a specific sound or piece of data.

Phase Modulation (PM) is closely related to FM, but instead of directly changing the frequency, it shifts the timing of the wave. In practice, the effect is so similar that most amateur radio operators simply group PM and FM together as "FM." The specific differences are beyond the scope of this book, but for ham radio use, just remember that FM and PM both result in the same practical type of signal.

Key Information: A typical VHF repeater FM voice signal has a bandwidth between 10 and 15 kHz.

Single Sideband (SSB)

Now, let's talk about SSB, which is where amplitude modulation gets a cool upgrade. SSB is the preferred mode for long-distance (weak signal) contacts on the VHF and UHF bands.

Key Information:

Compared to FM, SSB signals have a narrower bandwidth

Upper Sideband (USB) is normally used for 10-meter HF, VHF, and UHF single-sideband communications

A typical single sideband voice signal has an approximate bandwidth of 3 kHz

Single Sideband (SSB) is a form of amplitude modulation.

Remember how AM creates sidebands above and below the main frequency? In SSB, we eliminate the carrier wave and one of the sidebands. Using our laser pointer analogy, this would be like keeping the laser's color variations that represent your voice, but eliminating the constant background brightness of the beam when you're not speaking.

If you could filter out just the color variations above the laser pointer's main frequency, the colors that represent your voice, you'd be left with just the colors in the side band below the pointer's main color. These colors can be referred to as a "single side band" or SSB. Your laser would only emit light when you're actually speaking, and it would use exactly the minimum amount of light needed to represent your voice - no wasted energy on a constant beam or redundant information from the upper side band.

If you removed the laser pointer's main frequency and the colors below (the colors in the lower side band), you'd be left with Upper Side Band (USB).

Both Upper Side Band (USB) and Lower Side Band (LSB) modulation are referred to as Single Side Band (SSB), because we're removed one of the side bands. Both are a form of Amplitude Modulation.

There are two flavors of SSB:

Upper Sideband (USB): Generally used on frequencies above 10 MHz. This includes the 30, 20, 17, 15, 12, and 10 meter bands.

Lower Sideband (LSB): Used below 10 MHz, covering the 160, 80, and 40 meter bands.

Since we only transmit the essential part of the signal, SSB uses about half the bandwidth of standard AM and requires much less power for the same range—making it a favorite for weak signal and long-distance communications.

Bandwidth Comparison

Different modulation modes occupy different amounts of frequency space, much like how different colors of light take up different parts of the visual spectrum:

Key Information: Approximate bandwidths:

CW (Morse Code): Narrowest bandwidth, about 150 Hz

SSB voice: About 3 kHz

FM voice: About 10-15 kHz

AM fast-scan television: About 6 MHz

Bandwidth and Frequency Range

One fascinating aspect of amateur radio is how available bandwidth influences our choice of modulation. Think of radio bands like different-sized sections of the electromagnetic spectrum:

Narrow Sections (Limited Bandwidth): Modes like CW (Morse code) work brilliantly because they use an incredibly narrow slice of spectrum—like using just a sliver of a specific color in the rainbow.

Wider Sections (More Bandwidth): Bands with more available frequencies can support "wider" modes. For example:

The 10-meter band has enough room for both narrow CW and wider SSB

VHF/UHF repeater bands can handle FM voice, which needs more bandwidth

Fast-scan television requires massive bandwidth (about 6 MHz!) That's more than the width of any of the amateur bands below 70cm, so it is only allowed on 70cm and above.

As frequency ranges get wider, you can use more bandwidth-intensive modes. A 2-meter band voice contact might use wide FM (15kHz) or narrow FM (5kHz), or even narrower SSB (3kHz). There are digital modes which can be even narrower. One digital mode, PSK31 (which we'll discuss later), sends characters at 31 characters per second and coincidently only takes up 31Hz!

This flexibility is part of what makes amateur radio so dynamic and exciting.

These are just some of the modes!

In ham radio, there's always something new to learn. Each mode has its own quirks and charms. As you gain experience, you'll develop preferences and understand when to use each type of modulation. The joy of amateur radio is in the exploration!

Don't be afraid to listen, ask questions, and experiment. Every mode is a new adventure in communication.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T8A02:What type of modulation is commonly used for VHF packet radio transmissions?

FM or PM

T8A04:Which type of modulation is commonly used for VHF and UHF voice repeaters?

FM or PM

T8A09:What is the approximate bandwidth of a VHF repeater FM voice signal?

Between 10 and 15 kHz

T8A03:Which type of voice mode is often used for long-distance (weak signal) contacts on the VHF and UHF bands?

SSB

T8A07:What is a characteristic of single sideband (SSB) compared to FM?

SSB signals have narrower bandwidth

T8A06:Which sideband is normally used for 10 meter HF, VHF, and UHF single-sideband communications?

Upper sideband

T8A08:What is the approximate bandwidth of a typical single sideband (SSB) voice signal?

3 kHz

T8A01:Which of the following is a form of amplitude modulation?

Single sideband

T8A05:Which of the following types of signal has the narrowest bandwidth?

CW

T8A11:What is the approximate bandwidth required to transmit a CW signal?

150 Hz

T8A10:What is the approximate bandwidth of AM fast-scan TV transmissions?

About 6 MHz

Section 3.6: Digital and Video Modes

Welcome to the digital age of amateur radio! If voice modes are like having a conversation, digital modes are like sending text messages or emails through the airwaves. And video? You might be surprised to know that it's been possible to send pictures and even television via Amateur Radio for decades!

Key Information: Digital communications modes include packet radio, IEEE 802.11, and FT8, among others

Packet Radio

Key Information: Packet radio includes error detection checksum, destination station call sign, and automatic repeat request

Imagine sending an email through radio waves. That's essentially what packet radio does! It breaks your message into small "packets" of data, sends them over the air, and then reassembles them at the receiving end. Each packet includes a checksum for error detection, the call sign of the destination station, and an automatic repeat request if errors are detected.

It's like sending a puzzle through the air that reassembles itself perfectly on the other side! Packet radio was a big deal in the 1980s and 1990s before the internet became widespread. Today, it's still used in some applications, especially in emergency communications.

APRS (Automatic Packet Reporting System)

Key Information:

APRS can transmit GPS position data, weather data, and text messages

APRS provides real-time tactical communications with station location mapping

APRS lets you transmit GPS position data, weather information, and short text messages while providing real-time tactical digital communications in conjunction with a map showing the locations of stations. It's like Twitter meets Google Maps, but for radio!

PSK31

Key Information: PSK stands for Phase Shift Keying

PSK (Phase Shift Keying) is ideal for real-time, keyboard-to-keyboard conversations. PSK31 operates at a symbol rate of 31.25 baud, roughly matching typical typing speed. It's so narrow that contacts can be spaced just 100 Hz apart, allowing many signals to fit where a single voice transmission would.

RTTY (RadioTeletype)

RTTY is the granddaddy of digital modes, dating back to the 1930s. It's pretty much a radio-based typewriter. It's still popular in contests and among some news agencies.

PACTOR

PACTOR is a versatile digital mode that can automatically switch between speeds and encoding methods based on conditions. There are several versions, with PACTOR III offering robust performance for things like email over radio.

Digital Mobile Radio (DMR)

Key Information:

DMR uses time-multiplexing to put two digital voice signals on a single 12.5 kHz repeater channel

DMR color codes must match the repeater for access

DMR talkgroups allow users to share a channel without hearing other users

Join a DMR talkgroup by programming your radio with the group's ID or code

A DMR "code plug" contains access information for repeaters and talkgroups

DMR is a powerful digital voice mode that uses time-multiplexing to put two digital voice signals on a single 12.5 kHz repeater channel. This effectively doubles the available channels without using more spectrum.

What makes DMR unique:

Talkgroups: A way for groups of users to share a channel without hearing other users. Join by programming your radio with the group's ID or code.

Color Codes: Must match the repeater's color code for access.

Code Plugs: Contain access information for repeaters and talkgroups.

DMR networks are widely used for both local and worldwide communication through internet-linked systems.

System Fusion and C4FM

System Fusion is Yaesu's digital voice system that uses C4FM (Continuous Four-Level Frequency Modulation). Its standout feature is seamless switching between digital and analog FM - a Fusion radio can automatically detect whether a signal is digital or analog and switch modes accordingly. This backward compatibility means you can communicate with both digital and analog stations without extra programming.

Fusion works with WIRES-X, Yaesu's internet linking system, for worldwide digital communication.

D-STAR (Digital Smart Technologies for Amateur Radio)

Key Information: Before transmitting on D-STAR, you must program your call sign into the transceiver

D-STAR is a fully digital voice and data system developed by the Japan Amateur Radio League. Unlike System Fusion, D-STAR is entirely digital with no analog compatibility. Its key feature is call sign routing - you can enter the call sign of another ham, and the system will route your signal through linked repeaters to find them.

Before transmitting on D-STAR, you must program your call sign into the transceiver. This is required because your call sign is included in every transmission, enabling call sign routing and repeater linking.

Digital Station Groups and Selection

Key Information: To select a specific group of stations on a digital voice transceiver, enter the group's identification code

Digital voice modes allow you to organize communication into different groups or channels. Whether you're using DMR talkgroups, D-STAR reflectors, or System Fusion rooms, you need to know how to join the right conversation.

To select a specific group of stations on a digital voice transceiver, you typically enter the group's identification code into your radio. This could be a DMR talkgroup ID, a D-STAR reflector number, or a similar identifier depending on the digital mode you're using. Properly configuring these settings ensures your transmissions reach your intended audience rather than being broadcast to everyone using that frequency.

Digital Mode Hot Spots

Key Information: Digital hot spots enable communication using digital voice or data systems via the internet

A digital hot spot allows communication using digital voice or data systems via the internet. It's almost like having your own personal repeater, providing a gateway to the world of digital radio, extending your reach far beyond your local area for modes like DMR, D-STAR, or System Fusion.

Computer-Radio Interfaces

Key Information:

Computer-radio interface needs: Receive audio, transmit audio, and transmitter keying

For FT8: Connect radio to audio input and output of computer running WSJT-X software

For digital modes: Connect computer "line in" to transceiver speaker

For digital modes, you need to connect your radio to your computer. This requires:

Receive audio (from radio to computer)

Transmit audio (from computer to radio)

Transmitter keying (to control when the radio transmits)

For FT8, connect to the audio input and output of a computer running WSJT-X software and connect the computer "line in" to the transceiver speaker.

WSJT-X and FT8

Key Information:

FT8 is a digital mode capable of low signal-to-noise operation

WSJT-X software supports Earth-Moon-Earth, weak signal propagation beacons, and meteor scatter

FT8 is a digital mode capable of low signal-to-noise operation that's part of the WSJT-X software suite. This software supports several key amateur radio activities:

Earth-Moon-Earth (moonbounce) communication

Weak signal propagation beacons

Meteor scatter

Various digital modes including FT8

Video Modes

Key Information: NTSC indicates an analog fast-scan color TV signal

Amateur radio operators have several options for sending images and video:

Fast-Scan Television (FSTV): NTSC refers to an analog fast-scan color TV signal, similar to what was used for broadcast TV but adapted for amateur use. FSTV requires significant bandwidth, so it's typically used on UHF and microwave frequencies.

Slow-Scan Television (SSTV): Think of SSTV as sending a postcard via radio. It transmits still images, taking anywhere from a few seconds to a couple of minutes per picture. SSTV works on HF bands, requires minimal equipment, and is even used to receive images from the International Space Station!

Mesh Networks

Key Information: An amateur radio mesh network is an amateur-radio based data network using commercial Wi-Fi equipment with modified firmware

An amateur radio mesh network is a data network using commercial Wi-Fi equipment with modified firmware. It creates a robust, decentralized network where each station can receive and relay data.

ARQ (Automatic Repeat reQuest)

Key Information: ARQ is an error correction method where the receiving station detects errors and sends a request for retransmission

ARQ is an error correction method where the receiving station detects errors and sends a request for retransmission. It's like having a built-in "Could you repeat that?" function.

Getting Started with Digital Modes

Start Simple:

Try receiving before transmitting

Use built-in sound card interfaces

Join local digital nets to practice with packet radio

Learn to use talkgroups and color codes on DMR

Progress Gradually:

Try APRS for position reporting and messaging

Experiment with keyboard-to-keyboard modes like PSK

Set up FT8 for weak signal contacts

Explore digital voice modes

Expand Your Capabilities:

Build a mesh network node

Set up a digital hot spot

Try different interface methods

Experiment with video modes

Remember: Digital modes are constantly evolving. While you need to know certain concepts for the exam, the real excitement comes from using these modes to communicate in new and interesting ways.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T8D01:Which of the following is a digital communications mode?

A:

Packet radio

B:

IEEE 802.11

C:

FT8

All these choices are correct

T8D08:Which of the following is included in packet radio transmissions?

A:

A check sum that permits error detection

B:

A header that contains the call sign of the station to which the information is being sent

C:

Automatic repeat request in case of error

All these choices are correct

T8D03:What kind of data can be transmitted by APRS?

A:

GPS position data

B:

Text messages

C:

Weather data

All these choices are correct

T8D05:Which of the following is an application of APRS?

Providing real-time tactical digital communications in conjunction with a map showing the locations of stations

T8D06:What does the abbreviation "PSK" mean?

Phase Shift Keying

T8D07:Which of the following describes DMR?

A technique for time-multiplexing two digital voice signals on a single 12.5 kHz repeater channel

T2B12:What is the purpose of the color code used on DMR repeater systems?

Must match the repeater color code for access

T8D02:What is a “talkgroup” on a DMR repeater?

A way for groups of users to share a channel at different times without hearing other users on the channel

T2B07:How can you join a digital repeater’s “talkgroup”?

Program your radio with the group’s ID or code

T4B07:What does a DMR “code plug” contain?

Access information for repeaters and talkgroups

T4B11:Which of the following must be programmed into a D-STAR digital transceiver before transmitting?

Your call sign

T4B09:How is a specific group of stations selected on a digital voice transceiver?

By entering the group’s identification code

T4A10:What function is performed with a transceiver and a digital mode hot spot?

Communication using digital voice or data systems via the internet

T4A06:What signals are used in a computer-radio interface for digital mode operation?

Receive audio, transmit audio, and transmitter keying

T4A04:How are the transceiver audio input and output connected in a station configured to operate using FT8?

To the audio input and output of a computer running WSJT-X software

T4A07:Which of the following connections is made between a computer and a transceiver to use computer software when operating digital modes?

Computer “line in” to transceiver speaker connector

T8D13:What is FT8?

A digital mode capable of low signal-to-noise operation

T8D10:Which of the following operating activities is supported by digital mode software in the WSJT-X software suite?

A:

Earth-Moon-Earth

B:

Weak signal propagation beacons

C:

Meteor scatter

All these choices are correct

T8D04:What type of transmission is indicated by the term "NTSC?"

An analog fast-scan color TV signal

T8D12:Which of the following best describes an amateur radio mesh network?

An amateur-radio based data network using commercial Wi-Fi equipment with modified firmware

T8D11:What is an ARQ transmission system?

An error correction method in which the receiving station detects errors and sends a request for retransmission

Chapter 4: Antennas

Welcome to the world of antennas - the unsung heroes of amateur radio! In this chapter, we'll explore these crucial devices that bridge the gap between your radio and the airwaves.

We'll start by understanding the basic principles of how antennas work, converting electrical signals into radio waves and vice versa. You'll learn about different types of antennas, from simple dipoles to directional beams, and understand when and why you might choose one over another.

We'll delve into the concept of antenna polarization and how it affects your signal. You'll discover the importance of feed lines in getting your signal from the radio to the antenna efficiently, and learn about the different types of connectors used in amateur radio.

No discussion of antennas would be complete without talking about Standing Wave Ratio (SWR). You'll learn what SWR is, why it matters, and how to measure and optimize it for better performance.

By the end of this chapter, you'll have a solid foundation in antenna theory and practical knowledge that will help you set up your own amateur radio station. Whether you're operating from home, mobile, or in the field, understanding antennas will be key to your success on the air.

So, let's elevate our knowledge and reach new heights with antennas!

Section 4.1: Antenna Types

Imagine you're at a party, trying to talk to a friend across a noisy room. You might cup your hands around your mouth to direct your voice, or turn your ear towards your friend to hear better. Antennas work similarly - they help direct radio energy where you want it to go and pick up signals you want to hear.

There are many different types of antennas, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Some take more space, some are directional, some have more gain. The trick is to find the antenna that works best for your situation – and most hams end up with several different antennas for various purposes.

Let's Define a Term: You may have come across the term "Antenna system" – the Antenna System includes everything that is used by the transceiver as part of the antenna, such as the feed line and the antenna itself.

Essential Antenna Concepts

We are going to cover a lot of information in this section which you don't strictly need to know to pass your license exam – some readers may choose to skim and focus on the questions, then come back later when the information feels more relevant, and that's okay!

Key Information:

Antenna gain is the increase in signal strength in a specified direction compared to a reference antenna

Shortening an antenna increases its resonant frequency

When we talk about antenna gain, think of it like changing from a regular light bulb to a spotlight - you get a brighter beam in one direction, but less light in others. Gain is typically measured in:

dBi (decibels relative to an isotropic radiator)

dBd (decibels relative to a dipole)

An isotropic radiator is a theoretical "perfect" antenna that radiates equally in all directions, used as a reference point for comparing real antennas. The "i" in "dBi" refers to this isotropic radiator.

Common Antenna Types

Beam Antennas

Key Information: A beam antenna is an antenna that concentrates signals in one direction . Picture it as a flashlight reflector focusing light. The Yagi antenna offers the greatest gain of common antenna types, using multiple elements to achieve high gain and directivity.

It's important to remember that gain is just a redistribution of the signal—like a mirror or a lens that directs the signal toward your antenna. You get a stronger signal at that focal point, but anything outside that focus becomes much weaker.

Dipoles

Key Information: A half-wave dipole radiates the strongest signal broadside to the antenna.

The dipole is the most basic and fundamental antenna type - just two conductors of equal length, fed at the center. Most other antennas are really just clever variations on this basic design. A half-wavelength dipole antenna can be oriented in any direction, and its signal is always strongest broadside (perpendicular) to the wire. Understanding dipoles helps you understand how almost every other antenna works.

Monopoles A monopole is essentially half of a dipole that uses a ground plane (like your car body, handheld radio case, or the Earth itself) as the other half. Most handheld and mobile antennas are monopoles - they're simpler to build and mount than full dipoles while retaining similar radiation characteristics. When you see a quarter-wave vertical antenna on an HT or car, you're looking at a monopole.

Quarter-wave Verticals For the 2-meter band (146 MHz), a quarter-wave vertical is approximately 19 inches long . These are like dipoles standing on end, with the ground (or your car, or your handheld radio) acting as the other half.

5/8 Wave Verticals

Key Information: A 5/8 wavelength whip antenna has *more gain than a 1/4-wavelength antenna by concentrating more signal toward the horizon instead of up into the sky.

While this makes them popular for VHF and UHF mobile operations on flat terrain, it's important to understand that just like with a beam antenna this "gain" is just a redistribution of the signal. In hilly areas or canyons where your repeater might be above you, a 1/4-wave antenna can actually work better because it radiates more signal upward.

J-poles Shaped like the letter J, these are essentially half-wave antennas fed at one end. They're popular for VHF and UHF because they're easy to build and don't require a ground plane.

Loop Antennas These come in various shapes and sizes and are great for small spaces like attics or balconies.

Antenna Length and Frequency

The length of an antenna is related to its resonant frequency. The longer the antenna, the lower the resonant frequency. Here's a handy formula for dipole length:

Length (in feet)≈468frequency (in MHz)\text{Length (in feet)} ≈ \frac{468}{\text{frequency (in MHz)}} \text{Length%20(in%20feet)}%20≈%20\frac{468}{\text{frequency%20(in%20MHz)}}

or

Length (in inches)≈5600frequency (in MHz)\text{Length (in inches)} ≈ \frac{5600}{\text{frequency (in MHz)}} \text{Length%20(in%20inches)}%20≈%20\frac{5600}{\text{frequency%20(in%20MHz)}}

Below are common lengths for different bands. Some of these are answers to test questions! You can learn the equation or just memorize the number, whichever is easiest for you.

Band | Frequency | Half-wave length | Quarter-wave length
10m | 28 MHz | 200 inches | 100 inches
6m | 50 MHz | 112 inches | 56 inches
2m | 146 MHz | 38 inches | 19 inches
1.25m | 222 MHz | 25 inches | 12.5 inches
70cm | 440 MHz | 13 inches | 6.5 inches

Making Antennas Work in Limited Space

Sometimes we need to modify antennas to make them work better or fit in a smaller space:

Antenna Loading

Key Information: When space is tight, we can make an antenna electrically longer by inserting inductors in the radiating elements . This is called loading. While not as efficient as a full-size antenna, it lets us use shorter antennas when necessary.

Portable Antennas Key Information: The small, flexible antennas that come with handheld radios are convenient but have a significant drawback: they have low efficiency compared to a full-sized quarter-wave antenna . This means less of your power actually gets converted into radio waves.

Antenna Tuners Key Information: An antenna tuner's main job is to match the antenna system impedance to the transceiver's output impedance . It’s like a gearshift, adjusting the connection so your transmitter and antenna work together as efficiently as possible.

Antennas Requiring Tuners

Some antennas are designed to work across a wide range of frequencies but aren't naturally resonant at any of them:

Random Wire Antennas Just what they sound like - a wire of random length used as an antenna. They can be effective, especially for portable operations, but almost always require a tuner.

Multi-band Dipoles These dipoles are designed to work on multiple bands but are often not perfectly resonant on all of them. A tuner can help match the impedance on the non-resonant bands.

Magnetic Loop Antennas These compact antennas are great for restricted spaces but have a very narrow bandwidth. They require careful tuning each time you change frequency.

Remember that a tuner doesn't actually "tune" the antenna - it just matches impedances. It doesn't improve an antenna's radiation efficiency.

Practical Considerations

When choosing an antenna, consider:

Available space

Installation requirements

Direction you want to communicate

Bands you want to use

For example, a beam antenna might give you the most gain, but it needs to be rotated to point in different directions and requires more installation work than a simple vertical antenna.

The "best" antenna depends entirely on your situation and goals. Sometimes a simple antenna that you can actually install is better than a theoretically perfect antenna that won't fit in your space. Don't be afraid to experiment - your antenna farm can grow with your experience. The most important thing is to get on the air and join the conversation!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T9A11:What is antenna gain?

The increase in signal strength in a specified direction compared to a reference antenna

T9A05:Which of the following increases the resonant frequency of a dipole antenna?

Shortening it

T9A01:What is a beam antenna?

An antenna that concentrates signals in one direction

T9A06:Which of the following types of antenna offers the greatest gain?

Yagi

T9A10:In which direction does a half-wave dipole antenna radiate the strongest signal?

Broadside to the antenna

T9A08:What is the approximate length, in inches, of a quarter-wavelength vertical antenna for 146 MHz?

19

T9A12:What is an advantage of a 5/8 wavelength whip antenna for VHF or UHF mobile service?

It has more gain than a 1/4-wavelength antenna

T9A09:What is the approximate length, in inches, of a half-wavelength 6 meter dipole antenna?

112

T9A02:Which of the following describes a type of antenna loading?

Electrically lengthening by inserting inductors in radiating elements

T9A04:What is a disadvantage of the short, flexible antenna supplied with most handheld radio transceivers, compared to a full-sized quarter-wave antenna?

It has low efficiency

T9B04:What is the major function of an antenna tuner (antenna coupler)?

It matches the antenna system impedance to the transceiver's output impedance

Section 4.2: Polarization and Orientation

Imagine you're trying to slip a letter through a mail slot. If the slot is horizontal, you'll turn your letter sideways. If it's vertical, you'll orient your letter up-and-down. Antenna polarization works in a similar way—it's all about matching the orientation of your radio waves to get the best results.

Types of Polarization

Here's the deal with polarization - it's really just about which way your antenna is oriented and how that affects your radio waves. You've got three main flavors:

Vertical Polarization: Picture an antenna standing straight up and down, like a flagpole. The radio waves it sends out vibrate up and down as they travel. This is what you typically see on most mobile rigs and handheld radios.

Horizontal Polarization: Now imagine that flagpole laid down flat, parallel to the ground. You've got horizontal polarization - the waves vibrate side to side as they move. This is what you'll often use for those long-distance VHF/UHF contacts.

Key Information: A dipole oriented parallel to Earth's surface is a horizontally polarized antenna

Elliptical and Circular Polarization: Here's where things get interesting! When signals "reflect" off the ionosphere and return to Earth, their polarization can change, often becoming elliptically polarized. This means the wave's orientation traces an oval pattern as it moves through space. When this oval pattern becomes a perfect circle, we call it circular polarization.

Key Information: Because signals propagated by the ionosphere are elliptically polarized, either vertically or horizontally polarized antennas may be used for transmission or reception

Circular polarization is super useful for satellite work because it works regardless of how the antenna is oriented - kind of like a round peg that fits no matter how you rotate the hole. That's why many satellite operators use circularly polarized antennas.

The neat thing about ionospheric propagation is that it naturally induces elliptical polarization, which means either vertically or horizontally polarized antennas may be used for transmission or reception. Nature's doing the work of making your antenna choice more flexible!

Why Should You Care?

Simple - if you want the best signal possible, you want your receiving antenna to match the polarization of the incoming signal. Think back to that mail slot - you'll have a much easier time if your letter matches the slot's orientation.

Key Information: When antennas at opposite ends of a VHF/UHF line of sight radio link use different polarizations, the received signal strength is reduced

If your polarization is mismatched with the station you want to communicate with, you could lose up to 20 dB of signal strength - that's like turning your 100-watt transmitter into a 1-watt transmitter. Ouch!

What Works Where?

Different types of operation tend to favor different polarizations. Here's the rundown:

VHF/UHF FM and Repeaters: Most repeaters use vertical polarization - that's why pretty much every antenna you see on cars and HTs is standing straight up. It's all about playing nice with the repeaters!

VHF/UHF Weak Signal Work: When making long-distance contacts without repeaters, horizontal polarization is typically best. Most weak-signal VHF/UHF operators use horizontal antennas because they reduce signal loss due to polarization mismatch and can take better advantage of atmospheric propagation effects.

Key Information: Horizontal polarization is normally used for long-distance CW and SSB contacts on VHF and UHF bands

It also tends to pick up less man-made noise, which is always a plus.

HF Operation: Here's a fun twist - because the ionosphere tends to mix things up anyway, you can use either vertical or horizontal antennas. Each has its advantages, and many hams end up using both!

Satellite Work: Now we're really having fun! Satellites don't sit still relative to us, so their signals are constantly changing polarization. Many satellite enthusiasts use circularly polarized antennas to handle this. It's like being ready for a mail slot that's spinning!

Cool Tricks and Tips

Want to experiment with polarization? Here's a neat trick: if you've got a dipole antenna on a rotatable mount, you can switch between horizontal and vertical polarization just by rotating it. Instant flexibility!

And here's something to keep in mind - while matching polarization is important, don't get too stressed about it. In the real world, buildings, trees, and terrain all mess with polarization anyway. The important thing is to understand the basics and use them to your advantage when you can.

Remember, this stuff is fun to play with! Try different orientations, see what works best for your situation, and don't be afraid to experiment. That's what ham radio is all about - learning by doing and having a blast while you're at it.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T9A03:Which of the following describes a simple dipole oriented parallel to Earth's surface?

A horizontally polarized antenna

T3A09:Which of the following results from the fact that signals propagated by the ionosphere are elliptically polarized?

Either vertically or horizontally polarized antennas may be used for transmission or reception

T3A04:What happens when antennas at opposite ends of a VHF or UHF line of sight radio link are not using the same polarization?

Received signal strength is reduced

T3A03:What antenna polarization is normally used for long-distance CW and SSB contacts on the VHF and UHF bands?

Horizontal

Section 4.3: Feed Lines

Introduction to Feed Lines

Ever wondered how the radio waves actually get from your transceiver to your antenna? That's where feed lines come in. Think of them as the highways for your radio signals, carrying power from your radio to your antenna as efficiently as possible. Some feed lines are smooth, fast expressways. Others are bumpy backroads that waste your signal before it ever gets to where it needs to go.

Coaxial Cable: The Ham Radio Standard

Key Information: Most amateur radio feed lines are coaxial cables, which consist of a center conductor, insulation, a shielding layer, and a protective jacket.

Coaxial cable, or just coax, is the go-to feed line for hams. It's easy to use, doesn't require a lot of special handling, and does a great job of getting your signal where it needs to go—at least if you choose the right kind.

Impedance: Why It Matters

Key Information: Most ham radios and antennas use 50-ohm coax, while TV and cable systems use 75-ohm coax, which isn't ideal for amateur radio.

If you've ever looked behind your TV, you might have seen 75-ohm coax for cable or satellite. Can you use it for ham radio? Technically, yes. Should you? Not really. Ham gear is designed for 50-ohm coax, so that's what you want to use to keep your setup running smoothly.

Types of Coaxial Cable

Key Information: Thicker coax usually means lower loss. RG-213 and LMR-400 have less loss at any given frequency and are great for long runs, while RG-58 is better for short cables or portable setups.

There are lots of different kinds of coax, and they each have their pros and cons. Here are some common types:

RG-58 – Thin and flexible. Great for short runs or portable use, but it has higher loss over distance.

RG-8X – A little better than RG-58, still flexible but with less signal loss.

RG-8 / RG-213 / LMR-400 – Thicker, low-loss coax that's great for longer runs and higher frequencies.

RG-59 / RG-6 – The 75-ohm TV stuff. It technically works, but it's not a great choice for ham radio.

Hardline / Heliax – Heavy-duty, super low-loss coax. Used for repeaters and big setups where you can't afford to lose power along the way. This has the lowest loss at any given frequency (including UHF and VHF) of the coaxial types we've mentioned here.

Understanding Loss in Feed Lines

Key Information: The higher the frequency, the more loss you'll have in coax. A 3 dB loss means you're losing half your power before it reaches the antenna. Power lost in feed lines is converted to heat.

No coax is perfect—some of your power is always lost as heat before it even makes it to the antenna. The higher the frequency, the worse the loss. That's why satellite dishes often put the transmitter right at the antenna instead of running a long coax cable.

Potential Problems with Feed Lines

Key Information: Water, UV damage, loose connectors, and too many adapters can all cause signal loss and mess up your feed line.

Even the best coax can run into problems. Here are some things to watch out for:

Water intrusion – Coax and water don't mix. If moisture gets in, performance tanks. Always weatherproof outdoor connections!

Poor connections – Loose or corroded connectors are like potholes in your signal's highway. Keep them clean and tight!

High SWR – We covered SWR earlier, but just remember—if it's too high, you're losing power in your feed line instead of radiating it.

Too many connectors – Every extra adapter or connection means more loss. Keep it simple!

UV Damage – The sun's UV rays can break down coax over time. If it's going outside, make sure it's UV-resistant or protect it with conduit or tape.

Alternative Feed Lines: Ladder Line

Key Information: Ladder line has way less loss than coax but must be kept away from metal or it won't work right.

Ladder line is like the sports car of feed lines—super efficient, but kind of picky. It has way lower loss than coax, especially at HF, but it has one big catch: you have to keep it away from metal or it starts picking up noise and acting weird. It's a fantastic choice if you're using a balanced antenna and have room to route it properly.

Special Types of Coax

Key Information: Air-core coax has low loss but requires special techniques to keep moisture out.

Some high-end coax uses air instead of solid insulation between the center conductor and shield. This helps reduce loss, but if moisture gets in, it's game over. That's why this type of coax is often pressurized with dry air or nitrogen to keep water out.

Choosing the Right Feed Line

Key Information: For longer runs, use low-loss coax like RG-213 or LMR-400 to keep your signal strong.

Consider these factors when choosing coax:

How long is the run? Longer runs = more loss. Use thicker, low-loss coax.

What frequency are you using? Higher frequencies suffer more loss.

How much power are you running? Some coax handles heat and power better than others.

Will it be outside? If so, use UV-resistant, weatherproof coax or protect it properly.

Your feed line is just as important as your antenna. You could have the best antenna in the world, but if your coax is terrible, most of your power gets wasted before it even gets there.

So when you're setting up your station, don't cheap out on your feed line! Pick the right coax, protect it from the elements, and keep those connectors tight. Your signal (and everyone trying to hear you) will thank you!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T9B03:Why is coaxial cable the most common feed line for amateur radio antenna systems?

It is easy to use and requires few special installation considerations

T9B02:What is the most common impedance of coaxial cables used in amateur radio?

50 ohms

T9B10:What is the electrical difference between RG-58 and RG-213 coaxial cable?

RG-213 cable has less loss at a given frequency

T9B11:Which of the following types of feed line has the lowest loss at VHF and UHF?

Air-insulated hardline

T9B05:What happens as the frequency of a signal in coaxial cable is increased?

The loss increases

T7C07:What happens to power lost in a feed line?

It is converted into heat

T7C09:Which of the following causes failure of coaxial cables?

Moisture contamination

T9B08:Which of the following is a source of loss in coaxial feed line?

A:

Water intrusion into coaxial connectors

B:

High SWR

C:

Multiple connectors in the line

All these choices are correct

T7C10:Why should the outer jacket of coaxial cable be resistant to ultraviolet light?

Ultraviolet light can damage the jacket and allow water to enter the cable

T7C11:What is a disadvantage of air core coaxial cable when compared to foam or solid dielectric types?

It requires special techniques to prevent moisture in the cable

Section 4.4: Connectors

Ever tried to plug your phone charger into a USB-C port, only to realize it's micro-USB? That's the world of connectors in a nutshell. In ham radio, getting the right connection is crucial—it's the handshake between your radio and antenna.

Let’s take a look at the connectors you’re most likely to encounter as a new Technician, especially if you’re working with handheld radios.

SMA (SubMiniature version A)

This little connector is like the smartphone of radio connectors—small, sleek, and everywhere these days. Most modern handheld radios use them, but here’s where it can get a bit tricky:

Major brands like Icom, Yaesu, and Kenwood typically put an SMA-F (female) connector on the radio, so you need an SMA-M (male) antenna.

However, many newer brands, especially Baofeng and other Chinese brands, do the opposite. They use an SMA-M connector on the radio, so you’ll need an SMA-F antenna.

Understanding SMA Connector Gender:
An SMA-M (male) connector has internal threads and a center pin. This often causes confusion because the external threads of an SMA-F (female) connector can make it look male at first glance. However, the key detail is that the center conductor determines the gender:

Center pin = male
Center socket = female

Confused yet? Don’t worry, you’ll get the hang of it. Just remember: whatever connector is on your radio, you need the opposite on your antenna.

BNC (Bayonet Neill–Concelman)

Think of BNC as the quick-change artist of connectors. Instead of screwing on like SMA, it has a twist-and-lock mechanism that makes connecting and disconnecting antennas a breeze. You'll see these on some handheld radios, a lot of test equipment, and even some HF accessories.

Since early 2021, there's been a significant shift in the handheld radio community toward using BNC connectors. While most handhelds still come with SMA connectors, a growing number of operators—especially those who regularly swap antennas—are now adding BNC adapters to their radios. This trend has accelerated quickly, with BNC adapters becoming standard equipment for many hams.

Why are so many hams making this switch?

Quick antenna changes—twist-and-lock instead of multiple rotations with SMA threads

Reduced wear on radio connectors—the adapter takes the strain instead of your radio's built-in connector

Flexibility for different situations—swap between rubber duck, whip, and mobile antennas in seconds

Less risk of cross-threading—a common issue with SMA connectors

However, adapters aren't for everyone. They add bulk and a tiny amount of signal loss. If you don't switch antennas often, sticking with what fits your radio directly is totally fine.

PL-259/SO-239 (UHF Connector)

Key Information: PL-259 connectors are commonly used at HF and VHF frequencies but are not ideal for true UHF work.

Despite its name, the “UHF connector” is a bit of a misnomer. It’s widely used for HF and VHF radios, but it’s not the best choice for UHF. The name originates from a time when the UHF spectrum was defined as a different (lower) range of frequencies but the connector name stuck.

You’ll find these connectors on a lot of mobile and base station gear. They’re rugged, easy to solder, and can handle high power levels.

The PL-259 is the male PLug.

The SO-239 is the female SOcket.

PL-259 (UHF Male)
SO-239 (UHF Female)

These connectors work well up to about 150 MHz, but if you’re working above that, you might want to use Type N connectors instead.

Type N

Key Information: Type N connectors are the best choice for frequencies above 400 MHz due to their low loss and excellent shielding.

Meet the heavyweight champion of RF connectors. Type N connectors are like the armored tanks of the radio world—strong, weatherproof, and built for high frequencies.

They’re designed for UHF and microwave bands, which means they work great for repeaters, satellite communications, and serious VHF/UHF setups. While they’re bigger than SMA or BNC connectors, they make up for it with low signal loss and excellent shielding.

If you’re working at frequencies above 400 MHz, Type N is your best bet for maximum performance.

Pro Tips for Using Connectors

Keep connectors clean and dry – They're crucial connection points for your signal, so treat them well.

Tighten, but don’t over-tighten – Hand-tight is usually just right for handhelds.

Be gentle with SMA connectors – They’re tough, but not indestructible.

Stick to one connector type in your shack – It’ll save you from adapter headaches down the road.

Remember, while adapters can be lifesavers, they’re not ideal for permanent setups. Every connection is a potential point of signal loss or failure. When possible, use antennas and gear that match your radio’s connector directly.

Understanding connectors isn’t the most exciting part of ham radio, but it’s one of the most practical. If you don’t know the difference between SMA-M and SMA-F, you might buy an antenna that won’t fit your handheld. If you don’t recognize a PL-259, you could end up with the wrong coax for your mobile or base station.

Getting the right connectors means less hassle, fewer adapters, and better performance. Whether you’re hooking up a new antenna, changing radios, or building your station, knowing your connectors will save you time, money, and frustration.

So before you hit "Buy Now" on that new antenna or coax, take a second to check the connector. A little knowledge here can save you a lot of headaches down the road!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T9B07:Which of the following is true of PL-259 type coax connectors?

They are commonly used at HF and VHF frequencies

T9B06:Which of the following RF connector types is most suitable for frequencies above 400 MHz?

Type N

Section 4.5: Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)

Standing Wave Ratio, or SWR, is a critical concept in ensuring your antenna system is working efficiently. Let's break it down into manageable chunks:

What is SWR?

Key Information: SWR is a measure of how well a load is matched to a transmission line. A reading of 1:1 on an SWR meter indicates a perfect impedance match between the antenna and feed line.

SWR is essentially a report card for the impedance match in your antenna system. It tells you how well the impedance of your transmitter matches the impedance of your feed line and antenna combined. When these impedances match (typically at 50 ohms in amateur radio), maximum power transfers from your transmitter to your antenna system.

Think of your radio system like water flowing through pipes. Your transmitter pushes the signal (water) through your feed line (pipe) to your antenna. When the pipes are the right size (good impedance match), water flows smoothly. But if there's a mismatch, some water gets pushed back, creating backpressure - just like RF energy being reflected back to your transmitter. This backpressure is what SWR measures.

SWR is measured as a ratio - here's what different readings mean:

1:1 SWR: Perfect Match! All power is being accepted by your feed line and antenna.

Up to 1.5:1 SWR: Great! Most of your power is getting through.

2:1 SWR: Acceptable but not ideal. Some power is being reflected.

3:1 or higher SWR: Your impedance does not match. A significant amount of power is being reflected.

Why Does SWR Matter?

Key Information: A benefit of low SWR is reduced signal loss. Most solid-state transmitters reduce output power as SWR increases to protect the output amplifier transistors.

Why should you care about SWR? It's all about efficiency and equipment safety. The lower your SWR, the more of your radio's power actually makes it to your antenna and out into the world. High SWR means some of that power is bouncing back to your radio instead of being transmitted.

This reflected power creates two significant problems:

Wasted Energy: Power reflected back to your transmitter doesn't contribute to your signal, reducing your effective communication range.

Equipment Damage: More seriously, reflected power can overheat and damage your transmitter's output amplifier components. This is why most solid-state transmitters automatically reduce output power as SWR increases beyond a certain level.

Modern radios have protection circuits that detect high SWR and reduce power or shut down if necessary, but it's best not to rely on them—especially with cheaper transmitters. Keeping your SWR low ensures your radio stays efficient and safe for years to come.

Common Causes of High SWR

Key Information: A loose connection in the antenna or feed line can cause erratic changes in SWR.

What causes high SWR? Here are some common culprits:

Antenna Length: Your antenna isn't the right length for the frequency you're using.

Feed Line Issues: There's a problem with your feed line — maybe it's damaged or water has gotten in.

Nearby Metal Objects: Your antenna is too close to metal objects. Remember, antennas don't like to be crowded!

Loose or Corroded Connections: A little oxidation can cause big problems.

Measuring SWR

Key Information: An antenna analyzer or a directional wattmeter can be used to determine if an antenna is resonant at the desired frequency and to measure SWR.

How do you check your SWR? Many modern radios have built-in SWR meters. If yours doesn't, you can get an external SWR meter or an antenna analyzer. These tools are great to have in your ham radio toolbox. Another option is using a directional wattmeter—measure how much power is leaving your radio (forward power) and how much power is coming back from the antenna (reflected power), and you can calculate your SWR.

SWR and Handheld Radios

It's worth noting that checking SWR on a monopole (such as most antennas on a Handheld Transceiver) can be tricky. The antenna on an HT uses your body as part of the ground plane, so when you connect any measuring equipment, you fundamentally change the antenna system itself! This often leads to inaccurate readings and confusion.

For HTs and similar portable setups, it's usually more practical to evaluate antenna performance through actual signal tests rather than relying solely on SWR measurements. If you do want to check SWR, special fixtures that simulate body capacitance can help, but they're not perfect.

Troubleshooting High SWR

If your SWR is high, don't panic! Here are some things you can try:

Check Your Connections: A loose connection in the antenna or feed line is both a super easy fix and a super common issue, and it will shoot your SWR sky-high in no time flat!

Adjust the Length of Your Antenna: Sometimes a little snip or stretch is all you need.

Use an Antenna Tuner: It's like a matchmaker for your radio and antenna system.

Move Your Antenna: Give it some space to breathe—away from metal objects!

Final Thoughts on SWR

While a low SWR is essential for efficient power transfer, it doesn't tell the whole story about your antenna's radiation effectiveness. You could have a perfect 1:1 SWR with a dummy load (which is just a resistor that converts RF energy to heat), but you wouldn't be making any contacts because a dummy load doesn't radiate!

SWR simply tells you that power is being transferred efficiently from your transmitter to your antenna system - what happens after that depends on the antenna design, height, surroundings, and many other factors. A good antenna with good SWR ensures your power gets to the antenna and then radiates effectively into space.

So next time you're setting up your station, take a moment to check your SWR. It's like making sure the pipe from your water tank isn't leaking before worrying about where the sprinklers are aimed. With a good SWR, you'll know your transmitter power is at least making it to the antenna - the first step in making those exciting contacts!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T9B12:What is standing wave ratio (SWR)?

A measure of how well a load is matched to a transmission line

T7C04:What reading on an SWR meter indicates a perfect impedance match between the antenna and the feed line?

1:1

T7C06:What does an SWR reading of 4:1 indicate?

Impedance mismatch

T9B01:What is a benefit of low SWR?

Reduced signal loss

T7C05:Why do most solid-state transmitters reduce output power as SWR increases beyond a certain level?

To protect the output amplifier transistors

T9B09:What can cause erratic changes in SWR?

Loose connection in the antenna or feed line

T7C02:Which of the following is used to determine if an antenna is resonant at the desired operating frequency?

An antenna analyzer

T7C08:Which instrument can be used to determine SWR?

Directional wattmeter

Part 2: The Person Behind Amateur Radio

In Part 1, we explored the scientific foundations of radio communication—learning about electrical principles, radio waves, and the fundamental physics that make amateur radio possible. We learned how electrons flow, how radio waves propagate, and the intricate dance of electromagnetic energy. But science alone doesn't make a ham radio operator—it's what you do with that knowledge that truly matters.

Now, we transition from understanding the invisible world of radio waves to the very human world of radio operation. Amateur radio isn't just about complex equations and technical diagrams; it's about connection, service, and community. The scientific principles you've learned are the tools, but the heart of amateur radio beats through the operators who use those tools to communicate, help others, and push the boundaries of technology.

In this section, we'll explore the practical, human side of amateur radio. You'll learn how to:

Keep yourself and your equipment safe

Set up a functional radio station

Navigate the rules and regulations that govern our hobby

Develop the operating skills that will help you communicate effectively

Understand the critical role amateur radio plays in public service and emergency communications

Each chapter builds on the scientific foundation you've already established. Safety isn't just about avoiding electrical shock—it's about understanding how electricity works. Station setup isn't just about buying equipment—it's about applying the electrical and radio wave principles you've learned. Operating practices aren't arbitrary rules—they're practical applications of the communication technologies we've explored.

As you progress through these chapters, you'll transform from someone who understands radio theory to a skilled amateur radio operator ready to make your first contact, help your community, and become part of a global network of communicators.

The scientific journey of Part 1 was about understanding how radio works. The human journey of Part 2 is about showing what amateur radio can do. It's now time to discover the incredible world that awaits beyond the theory!

Chapter 5: Safety

Welcome to one of the most important chapters in your journey to becoming a responsible amateur radio operator: safety. Making contacts across the globe is thrilling, but it’s just as vital to ensure that your radio adventures don’t put you—or anyone else—at risk.

In this chapter, we’ll explore key safety topics every ham should understand. We’ll begin with electrical safety, including how to handle AC power responsibly and recognize potential hazards in your shack. You'll learn the importance of proper grounding and how to protect yourself from electric shock.

Next, we’ll dive into RF safety, where we’ll discuss the potential risks of radio frequency exposure and how to minimize them. You'll gain insight into safe power levels and smart antenna placement to protect yourself, your household, and your neighbors.

We’ll also cover battery safety, which is especially important for those interested in portable or emergency operations. And we’ll walk through best practices for antenna installation, including how to avoid the very real danger of nearby power lines.

Remember, safety isn’t just about following checklists—it’s about developing a mindset that puts well-being first in every part of the hobby. By the end of this chapter, you’ll have the knowledge and awareness to create a safe environment for your radio activities, ensuring your ham radio experience is not only fun but also secure.

So, let’s put on our safety glasses and hard hats (metaphorically speaking) and get started—because nobody wants a shocking surprise!

Section 5.1: AC Power

What is AC Power?

First things first: AC stands for Alternating Current. Unlike DC (Direct Current) that powers most of our radios by flowing steadily in one direction, AC constantly changes. In the United States, AC operates at 60 Hz, which means the current flows in one direction, decreases to zero, reverses to flow in the opposite direction, and then returns to zero – completing this entire pattern 60 times every second.

Why Does AC Power Matter for Hams?

Why should you care about AC power as a ham? Well, unless you're running everything off batteries (and kudos if you are!), AC is what's powering your station. It's also potentially dangerous if not respected.

The Basics of AC Power

Let's break down the basics:

Voltage: In the U.S., most home outlets provide 120 volts AC. That's enough to give you a nasty shock or worse. Some appliances, like electric dryers or stoves, use 240 volts.

Current: This is measured in amperes or amps. Your typical household circuit might be 15 or 20 amps.

Wiring Colors: Understanding wire colors in AC wiring is important for safety. That said, never assume a wire is safe to touch just based on its color – always test with proper equipment!

Key Information: In the United States, black wire insulation indicates the "hot" wire, white is neutral, and green or bare copper is the ground

Grounding: This is super important. The third prong on your plugs? That's the ground. It's there to protect you by providing a safe path for current if something goes wrong inside the equipment.

Electrical Hazards to the Human Body

Key Information: Electrical current through the body can cause tissue heating, disrupt cellular electrical function, and cause involuntary muscle contractions

Electrical current flowing through the body is dangerous in several ways:

It can cause heating of tissue, similar to how a heating element works but inside your body. This can cause burns, both external and internal.

It can disrupt the normal electrical functions of cells, especially in the heart and nervous system. Even relatively small currents can interfere with your heart's rhythm.

It can cause involuntary muscle contractions that might prevent you from letting go of an energized conductor, leading to prolonged exposure.

Any one of these effects can be serious or fatal depending on the current path through your body, duration of contact, and the amount of current.

AC Power Safety Tips

Key Information: Always use three-wire cords and plugs for all AC-powered equipment, connect to a common safety ground, and install mechanical interlocks in high-voltage circuits

To guard against electrical shock at your station:

Use three-wire cords and plugs for all AC-powered equipment. The third wire (green/bare) provides an alternate path for current if insulation fails.

Connect all AC-powered station equipment to a common safety ground. This helps prevent voltage differences between equipment that could create shock hazards.

Install mechanical interlocks in high-voltage circuits to prevent accidental contact with dangerous voltages.

Keep It Dry: Water and electricity don't mix. Keep your equipment dry, and never operate with wet hands.

Unplug Before Working: If you're going to work on equipment, unplug it first. And even then, be careful—some devices (like old tube amplifiers) can store charge in capacitors long after they're unplugged.

Check Your Cords: Be cautious of frayed cords or damaged plugs. They're accidents waiting to happen.

Don't Overload Circuits: Know how much current your equipment draws and make sure your wiring can handle it.

Ask for Help: If you're not sure, ask for help. There's no shame in calling an electrician or a more experienced ham for advice.

Stay safe out there, and happy hamming!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T0A03:In the United States, what circuit does black wire insulation indicate in a three-wire 120 V cable?

Hot

T0A02:What health hazard is presented by electrical current flowing through the body?

A:

It may cause injury by heating tissue

B:

It may disrupt the electrical functions of cells

C:

It may cause involuntary muscle contractions

All these choices are correct

T0A06:What is a good way to guard against electrical shock at your station?

A:

Use three-wire cords and plugs for all AC powered equipment

B:

Connect all AC powered station equipment to a common safety ground

C:

Install mechanical interlocks in high-voltage circuits

All these choices are correct

Section 5.2: Hazardous Voltages

Note: While this section doesn't contain material directly tied to specific exam questions, the safety information presented here is essential knowledge for any ham radio operator working with electrical equipment.

What Are Hazardous Voltages?

In the ham radio world, we generally consider anything above 30 volts to be potentially hazardous. That might seem low, but remember, it doesn't take much to give you a nasty shock or worse.

Where Might You Encounter Hazardous Voltages?

You might be surprised where hazardous voltages can pop up:

Test Leads: Whenever you are measuring hazardous voltages don't forget that the probes you use to measure are then also subject to those dangerous voltages! It's an easy thing to overlook when testing.

Power Supplies: That 13.8V power supply for your radio? Inside, it's converting 120V AC to DC. One wrong move and you could be in for a shock.

Antenna Systems: Ever heard of "hot" antennas? Some antennas can develop high voltages at their feed points, especially when transmitting.

Older Equipment: If you're lucky enough to play with some vintage gear, be extra cautious. Old tube equipment can have voltages in the hundreds or even thousands of volts!

Capacitors: These little storage tanks can hold a charge long after equipment is unplugged. They're like electrical grudge-holders.

This is worth emphasizing; when capacitors are involved, just because it's unplugged and power is off does not mean it's safe! Many people have hurt themselves by opening equipment and touching the wrong thing before the capacitors were fully discharged.

Staying Safe Around Hazardous Voltages

So, how do we stay safe?

Assume Everything is "Hot": Always assume equipment is live until proven otherwise. Use a voltmeter to check before you touch.

One Hand Rule: Use one hand when working around high voltages. It sounds weird, but it keeps current from flowing across your chest if you do get shocked.

Discharge Capacitors Properly: Capacitors can hold a dangerous charge. Learn safe ways to discharge them before poking around—usually through a resistor of appropriate value, never by shorting them directly.

Use Properly Insulated Tools: When working with potentially hazardous voltages, use tools with insulated handles rated for the voltage you're working with. Look for tools marked with voltage ratings (often 1000V) and make sure the insulation isn't cracked or damaged.

Keep Your Workspace Dry: Water and electricity don't mix. Make sure your work area is dry and you're not standing on a damp floor or concrete (which can be conductive).

Look for Warning Labels: Pay attention to any warning labels on equipment indicating hazardous voltages. If you're building or modifying equipment, consider adding your own warning labels where appropriate.

Never Work Alone: When working on high-voltage equipment, always have a buddy around who knows CPR, just in case.

If You're Not Sure, Don't Touch It: There's no shame in asking for help or leaving it to the experts.

First Aid for Electrical Shock

If someone does receive an electrical shock:

Don't touch them if they're still in contact with the electrical source

Cut power if possible before providing assistance

Call for emergency medical help immediately

Provide CPR if the person is unresponsive and not breathing normally

Treat any burns after addressing life-threatening conditions

Remember, the goal is to make contacts, not become one with your equipment. Electricity doesn't care how experienced you are or how careful you think you're being. It'll take any path to ground, including through you if you give it the chance.

Stay safe, stay insulated, and may all your connections remain social and not electrical.

Section 5.3: Fuses and Circuit Breakers

What Are Fuses and Circuit Breakers?

Key Information: Fuses and circuit breakers are electrical components used to protect other circuit components from current overloads

Let's talk about the first line of defense in electrical safety: fuses and circuit breakers are devices designed to protect electrical circuits from overcurrent conditions. These little guardians might not look like much, but they're the difference between a minor inconvenience and a major disaster. Think of fuses and circuit breakers as the bodyguards of your electrical system. Their job? To interrupt overloads and short circuits before they can damage your equipment—or worse, start a fire.

Fuses contain a metal wire that melts when overloaded—your friend, the lowly fuse, will die to protect your circuit from excess current! Circuit breakers, meanwhile, are switches that trip when detecting overcurrent and can be reset.

Key Information: The purpose of a fuse in an electrical circuit is to remove power in case of overload

Fuses: The One-Time Heroes

First up, fuses. These simple devices are basically a thin wire enclosed in a glass or ceramic tube. When too much current flows, the wire heats up and melts, breaking the circuit. It's like a self-sacrificing hero in an action movie, nobly destroying itself to save the day.

Circuit Breakers: The Reusable Protectors

Circuit breakers, on the other hand, are the reusable superheroes. They use either a bi-metallic strip or an electromagnet to detect overcurrent. When they spot trouble, they flip a switch and break the circuit. Once the danger's passed, you can reset them and they're back on duty.

Why Fuses and Breakers Matter for Hams

Why should you care about these as a ham? Well, let's paint a picture:

Imagine you've just scored a sweet deal on a used power supply for your shack. You plug it in, flip the switch, and... nothing. You notice the fuse is blown. "No biggie," you think, "I'll just replace it with a bigger one."

Hold on! That's a recipe for disaster. Using a higher-rated fuse than specified allows excessive current to flow, which can cause wires and components to overheat, potentially leading to a fire. Fuses and circuit breakers are sized specifically for the equipment they protect. Using a larger fuse is like telling the bouncer to let in anyone, no matter how rowdy they look. You're asking for trouble.

Key Information: A 5-ampere fuse should never be replaced with a 20-ampere fuse because excessive current could cause a fire

Key Points about Fuses and Breakers

Here are some key points to keep in mind when dealing with fuses and circuit breakers:

Replace with the Same Rating: Always replace fuses with the same type and rating. If it calls for a 5A fuse, use a 5A fuse. Not 10A, not 4A. 5A.

Investigate Persistent Issues: If a fuse keeps blowing, don't just keep replacing it. There's a problem that needs fixing.

Key Information: In a 120V AC power circuit, a fuse or circuit breaker should be installed in series with the hot conductor only

Know Your Circuit Breakers: Know where your circuit breakers are and what they control. Label them if they're not already. In 120V AC power circuits, the fuse or circuit breaker should always be in series with the "hot" (live) conductor. This ensures that when the overcurrent device operates, it disconnects the live voltage source, keeping you safe from electric shock.

Use Power Strips with Built-In Breakers: In your shack, consider using power strips with built-in circuit breakers for an extra layer of protection.

Use Proper Fuses for Mobile Setups: For mobile setups, make sure you use the right fuse for your radio. Lots of hams have learned this lesson the hard way when their fuse blew in the middle of nowhere!

Overcurrent vs. Overvoltage: Remember, fuses and circuit breakers protect against overcurrent, not overvoltage. They're not a cure-all for electrical problems.

Safety First: Don't Bypass Protection

It's tempting to bypass a fuse or stick a larger one in when you're in the middle of a QSO and a fuse blows. Resist that urge! Never replace a blown fuse with one of a higher rating or modify a circuit to defeat overcurrent protection. Defeating safety devices can lead to equipment damage or personal injury. Always use the correct fuse type and rating specified by the manufacturer.

Important: Never replace a 5-ampere fuse with a 20-ampere fuse! Doing so is like removing the brakes from your car because they slow you down—not a good idea!

Real-World Example

Here's a real-world ham radio example: Let's say you're setting up a mobile rig in your car. You've got a 50W VHF/UHF transceiver that draws about 10A at full power. You might be tempted to use a 30A fuse "just to be safe." But that's overkill and potentially dangerous. Using a fuse rated higher than necessary can prevent it from blowing when it should. Stick with a 15A or 20A fuse as recommended by the manufacturer.

Fuses and Circuit Breakers in DC Circuits

While we often think of circuit breakers in the context of household AC power, overcurrent protection is equally important in DC circuits, like those in mobile or battery-powered setups. A short circuit in a DC system can cause wires to overheat rapidly. Installing the appropriate fuse in series with the positive lead protects against this risk.

Ignore these at your peril!

Remember, fuses and circuit breakers are there to protect you and your equipment. They're not an annoyance to be bypassed, they're your first line of defense against electrical fires and equipment damage.

So next time you're setting up a new piece of gear, take a moment to appreciate these little lifesavers. They might just save your shack—or your life—one day.

Stay safe, and may all your fuses remain unblown!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T6A09:What electrical component is used to protect other circuit components from current overloads?

Fuse

T0A04:What is the purpose of a fuse in an electrical circuit?

To remove power in case of overload

T0A05:Why should a 5-ampere fuse never be replaced with a 20-ampere fuse?

Excessive current could cause a fire

T0A08:Where should a fuse or circuit breaker be installed in a 120V AC power circuit?

In series with the hot conductor only

Section 5.4: Batteries

Ah, batteries—the lifeblood of portable ham radio! Whether you're operating from a mountaintop or preparing for emergencies, these portable powerhouses keep us on the air. But like any good superhero, they come with their own kryptonite. So, let’s unpack the world of batteries and see how to use them safely and effectively.

Types of Batteries

First off, let's meet our cast of characters:

Key Information:

Rechargeable battery types include: nickel-metal hydride, lithium-ion, lead-acid, and nickel-cadmium

Carbon-zinc batteries are not rechargeable

Lead-Acid Batteries: The old reliable. You'll find these in cars and as backup power for your shack. They're like the dependable workhorse of the battery world. They're rechargeable and can deliver high currents.

Lithium-Ion (Li-ion): The star of modern handheld radios. They pack a punch in a small package, but they can be a bit temperamental. These are rechargeable and have a high energy density.

Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4): The new kid on the block. They're safe, stable, and last forever (well, almost). Also rechargeable, they're known for their long life and safety.

Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH): Often found in AA or AAA sizes. They're the eco-friendly option and were extremely common before Li-ion batteries caught on and became ubiquitous. Rechargeable and a good alternative to disposables.

Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd): The classic rechargeable. Once the go-to for cordless phones and older handheld radios. They have a nominal voltage of 1.2 volts per cell, just like NiMH batteries. However, they can suffer from the "memory effect" if not fully discharged before recharging. Due to environmental concerns over cadmium—a toxic heavy metal—they've been largely replaced by NiMH batteries. You might still come across them in older devices, but they're becoming less common.

Alkaline: The one-hit wonders. Great for emergencies (you can buy them at the store!), but once they're done, they're done. These non-rechargeable batteries have a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts per cell, providing a bit more oomph than their rechargeable counterparts.

Carbon-Zinc Batteries: The old-school disposables. These are some of the earliest types of dry cell batteries. Non-rechargeable with a nominal voltage of 1.5 volts per cell, they have a shorter lifespan and lower capacity compared to alkaline batteries. Think of them as the great-grandparent of modern batteries—important historically but less relevant today.

A Note on Voltages

It's worth noting that batteries of different types may have different voltages per cell, even if they are the same size! Always check things out before connecting them!

Battery Safety Tips

Now, let's talk safety. Each of these battery types has its own quirks:

Key Information: Shorting the terminals of any battery can cause burns, fire, or an explosion

Lead-Acid Batteries:

These guys can produce hydrogen gas, especially when charging. Always use them in well-ventilated areas. You don't want your shack turning into a blimp!

They contain sulfuric acid. Treat them like you would a grumpy cat—with respect and protective gear.

The terminals can deliver a whopping amount of current if shorted. Remove your jewelry and use insulated tools—you definitely don’t want to be the human fuse in this circuit! (And do not ask the authors of this book the melting point of sterling silver jewelry. They would have absolutely no personal reason to know that. None at all.)

Each cell in a lead-acid battery produces about 2.1 volts. So, a typical "12-volt" battery actually measures around 12.6 volts when fully charged and has a working voltage range of 12.0-12.8V.

Warning: Avoid creating sparks near a charging lead-acid battery. The hydrogen gas it emits is flammable, and a spark could lead to an explosion — not the kind of bang you want in your shack! For this reason many people prefer to avoid keeping lead-acid batteries indoors.

🔥 Here's a real-world cautionary tale: While attempting to connect lead-acid batteries in parallel to build a battery bank, an operator once reversed the wiring. The result? A smoking cable hot enough to melt rubber. Fortunately, the damage was limited—but it's a vivid reminder to always double-check your connections and use proper fusing.

There's ample evidence that even experienced operators can make mistakes like this—including some who go on to write books on the subject.

Lithium-Ion Batteries:

Overcharging is a big no-no. It can lead to overheating or even fire. Stick to the charger that came with your radio.

If they get punctured or damaged, treat them like a ticking time bomb. Dispose of them properly and quickly.

They're not fans of extreme temperatures. Kind of like Goldilocks—not too hot, not too cold.

Each cell in a lithium-ion battery produces 3.7 volts, so if you see a "12 volt" lithium-ion battery it is probably using some electronics to get the voltage where you want it.

🔥 One more cautionary tale: A young (11yo) radio enthusiast was once experimenting with 18650 Lithium-Ion battery cells–on his bed, no less–while playing with a motor stripped from a scooter.

The exact details are unclear, but somehow the cells shorted. One moment everything was fine, and the next, the battery casing was across the room, a softball-sized burn had melted through the quilt, and the air was filled with a harsh chemical smell.

Fortunately, no one was hurt and the damage was limited to some bedding, but it's a stark reminder: Lithium-Ion batteries can and do fail violently when mishandled. Despite common claims that they “don’t explode,” they can absolutely vent with flame under the right conditions.

Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) Batteries:

These are the laid-back cousins of Li-ion. Safer, but they still prefer their own special chargers.

They're not fans of charging in extreme cold. Think of them as the battery equivalent of a person who hates getting out of bed on a winter morning.

Each cell in a Lithium Iron Phosphate battery produces about 3.2 volts. A typical "12-volt" battery is actually 12.8V and will usually be charged to 14.6V to get to full capacity.

Over or undercharging a single LiFePO4 cell can ruin it!

Key Information: Charging or discharging a battery too quickly can cause overheating or out-gassing

How Long Will Your Battery Last?

When you're out in the field or during a power outage, knowing how long your equipment can run on a battery is crucial. This is where understanding your battery's ampere-hour (Ah) rating and your equipment's current draw comes into play.

Key Information: Battery life can be determined by dividing the battery ampere-hour rating by the average current draw of the equipment

To determine how long your battery will last, you can use the following method:

Battery Life Calculation: Divide the battery's ampere-hour (Ah) rating by the average current draw of your equipment.

This method will give you an estimate of how long your equipment can run before the battery is depleted.

For example, if you have a 12Ah battery and your radio draws an average of 2A:

Battery Life (hours)=12Ah2A=6 hours\begin{align*} \text{Battery Life (hours)} &= \frac{12 \text{Ah}}{2A}\\ &= 6 \text{ hours}\\ \end{align*} \begin{align*}\text{Battery%20Life%20(hours)}%20&=%20\frac{12%20\text{Ah}}{2A}\\&=%206%20\text{%20hours}\\\end{align*}

This means your battery could power your equipment for about 6 hours under these conditions. Keep in mind that this is a rough estimate and actual performance can vary based on factors like temperature, battery age, and usage patterns.

Note: For some batteries, particularly lead-acid batteries, the battery might not last as long as the calculation suggests if you're drawing a lot of current due to something called Peukert's Law. Basically, the harder you push the battery, the less total capacity you'll get out of it.

General Battery Wisdom

Use the right charger for each battery type. It's not a one-size-fits-all situation.

Be careful when leaving batteries charging unattended—if your charger malfunctions, you could end up with a dangerous situation.

Store batteries in a cool, dry place. They're not wine; they don't get better with age and heat.

Keep battery terminals covered when not in use. Accidental shorts are no joke and can be extremely dangerous.

Don't mix old and new batteries. It's like pairing a marathon runner with a couch potato in a three-legged race — the new batteries can end up overcompensating, which might cause them to overheat or leak.

Be mindful of what you connect to it! Charging or discharging a battery too quickly can cause it to overheat, release toxic gases (outgas), or even, in extreme cases (we're looking at you, Lithium-Ion!), explode.

Emergency Preparedness

For emergency preparedness:

Keep a stash of fresh batteries for your go-kit.

Regularly test and cycle your rechargeables. If you never use them, you're likely to find they aren't working when you need them!

Have a plan for charging during extended power outages. Solar chargers can be a ham's best friend.

Take care of your batteries!

Batteries are incredible tools that let us take our hobby anywhere – but they demand respect. Treat them right, and they'll keep your radios powered and your conversations flowing, whether you're ragchewing from your backyard or providing emergency communications after a disaster.

Stay safe, stay charged, and happy hamming!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T6A10:Which of the following battery chemistries is rechargeable?

A:

Nickel-metal hydride

B:

Lithium-ion

C:

Lead-acid

All these choices are correct

T6A11:Which of the following battery chemistries is not rechargeable?

Carbon-zinc

T0A01:Which of the following is a safety hazard of a 12-volt storage battery?

Shorting the terminals can cause burns, fire, or an explosion

T0A10:What hazard is caused by charging or discharging a battery too quickly?

Overheating or out-gassing

T4A09:How can you determine the length of time that equipment can be powered from a battery?

Divide the battery ampere-hour rating by the average current draw of the equipment

Section 5.5: Antennas and Tower Safety

Alright, antenna enthusiasts, let's talk about keeping safe while getting those signals out! Even as Technician class operators, you might find yourself helping with antenna work, so it's crucial to know the basics.

Tower Safety and Climbing

When it comes to towers, safety isn't just a good idea—it's essential. If you're planning to work on a tower, here's what you need to know:

Key Information: When climbing an antenna tower, you must:

Have sufficient training on safe tower climbing techniques

Use appropriate tie-off to the tower at all times

Always wear an approved climbing harness

Have a helper or observer present

Never Climb Alone: It is never safe to climb a tower without a helper or observer. Your ground crew isn't just there to hand you tools—they're your safety net. They can call for help in an emergency, guide you through difficult maneuvers, and keep an eye on changing conditions like approaching weather.

Proper Equipment is Non-Negotiable: When climbing a tower, you must have sufficient training on safe tower climbing techniques, use appropriate tie-off to the tower at all times, and always wear an approved climbing harness. This isn't the place to cut corners or improvise.

Crank-Up Tower Special Rules: A crank-up tower must not be climbed unless it is retracted, or mechanical safety locking devices have been installed. These towers aren't designed to be climbed when extended without proper locking mechanisms in place. The telescoping sections can collapse if improperly secured, leading to catastrophic results.

Here's a real-life scenario: A ham decided to make a "quick adjustment" to his antenna on a crank-up tower without retracting it or using the safety locks. A sudden gust of wind caused the tower to shift slightly, and the unsecured sections began to telescope downward. Fortunately, he wasn't on the tower at the time, but his expensive antenna system wasn't so lucky!

Overhead Power Lines and Placement

Key Information: Always look for and stay clear of overhead electrical wires when putting up an antenna tower

Power lines are the arch-nemesis of antenna safety. When putting up an antenna tower, always look for and stay clear of any overhead electrical wires. Here's a rule of thumb:

Key Information: The minimum safe distance from a power line to allow when installing an antenna is enough so that if the antenna falls, no part of it can come closer than 10 feet to the power wires

So if you're putting up a 20-foot vertical, that's 30 feet minimum from any power lines.

Key Information: You should avoid attaching an antenna to a utility pole because the antenna could contact high-voltage power lines

Even if it seems convenient, it's just not worth the risk. Utility poles often carry multiple electrical lines, some carrying thousands of volts. An antenna that touches these lines can energize your entire system, creating a deadly hazard.

Guy Wires and Structural Support

Tall towers often need guy wires to keep them standing strong. But there’s a small but important detail—if the turnbuckles (the metal adjusters that tighten the guy wires) loosen due to vibration, the whole structure could be at risk!

Key Information: The purpose of a safety wire through a turnbuckle used to tension guy lines is to prevent loosening of the turnbuckle from vibration

The fix is simple: after adjusting the turnbuckle, thread a thin safety wire through its holes and twist the ends together. This keeps it from spinning loose over time. Just a little wire can make the difference between a steady tower and a dangerous collapse!

Grounding Systems and Lightning Protection

Proper grounding is essential for both safety and equipment protection. Here's what you need to know:

Key Information: When installing ground wires on a tower for lightning protection, ensure that connections are short and direct

Key Information: A lightning arrester should be installed on a grounded panel near where feed lines enter the building

This placement allows it to intercept lightning energy before it can enter your home or shack. While no system can fully protect against a direct lightning strike, a properly installed arrester can significantly reduce the risk to your equipment and home.

Key Information: All external ground rods or earth connections should be bonded together with heavy wire or conductive strap

This ensures that lightning energy finds a direct path to ground instead of traveling through your equipment looking for an alternative route.

Key Information: A proper ground method for a tower is separate eight-foot ground rods for each tower leg, bonded to the tower and each other

This provides multiple paths to earth ground, reducing ground resistance and improving lightning protection – it also reduces the chance of lightning seeking other paths to ground, such as the mounting hardware holding the tower in place!

Key Information: Flat copper strap is the preferred conductor for RF bonding

Due to the skin effect (where RF currents travel on the surface of conductors), a flat strap provides more surface area and lower impedance than a round wire of the same cross-sectional area.

Key Information: When installing grounding conductors used for lightning protection, sharp bends must be avoided

Lightning follows the path of least resistance, and sharp bends can create high impedance points that may cause the energy to arc or find an alternative path.

Key Information: Local electrical codes establish grounding requirements for an amateur radio tower or antenna

These aren't just suggestions—they're legally required standards designed to keep you and your property safe. Always consult and follow your local electrical code when installing antennas and towers.

Safety first when working on antennas!

Remember, the goal is to make contacts and have fun, not to star in the next "What Not to Do" video at your local ham club. Antenna work can be exciting and rewarding, but it needs to be done with a healthy dose of respect and caution.

So, before you start raising that antenna for your first VHF/UHF adventures, take a moment to think safety. Your fellow hams, your radio gear, and most importantly, you, will be better off for it.

Stay safe, keep those antennas high (but not too close to power lines), and happy operating on those VHF and UHF bands!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T0B02:What is required when climbing an antenna tower?

A:

Have sufficient training on safe tower climbing techniques

B:

Use appropriate tie-off to the tower at all times

C:

Always wear an approved climbing harness

All these choices are correct

T0B03:Under what circumstances is it safe to climb a tower without a helper or observer?

Never

T0B07:Which of the following is an important safety rule to remember when using a crank-up tower?

This type of tower must not be climbed unless it is retracted, or mechanical safety locking devices have been installed

T0B04:Which of the following is an important safety precaution to observe when putting up an antenna tower?

Look for and stay clear of any overhead electrical wires

T0B06:What is the minimum safe distance from a power line to allow when installing an antenna?

Enough so that if the antenna falls, no part of it can come closer than 10 feet to the power wires

T0B09:Why should you avoid attaching an antenna to a utility pole?

The antenna could contact high-voltage power lines

T0B05:What is the purpose of a safety wire through a turnbuckle used to tension guy lines?

Prevent loosening of the turnbuckle from vibration

T0B01:Which of the following is good practice when installing ground wires on a tower for lightning protection?

Ensure that connections are short and direct

T0A07:Where should a lightning arrester be installed in a coaxial feed line?

On a grounded panel near where feed lines enter the building

T0A09:What should be done to all external ground rods or earth connections?

Bond them together with heavy wire or conductive strap

T0B08:Which is a proper grounding method for a tower?

Separate eight-foot ground rods for each tower leg, bonded to the tower and each other

T4A08:Which of the following conductors is preferred for bonding at RF?

Flat copper strap

T0B10:Which of the following is true when installing grounding conductors used for lightning protection?

Sharp bends must be avoided

T0B11:Which of the following establishes grounding requirements for an amateur radio tower or antenna?

Local electrical codes

Section 5.6: RF Exposure

What is RF Exposure?

Alright, fellow hams, let's clear the air about RF exposure. RF (Radio Frequency) radiation is a type of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation. Unlike ionizing radiation (like X-rays), RF radiation doesn't have enough energy to knock electrons off atoms or molecules. It's the same kind of energy your microwave oven uses to heat food, just at different frequencies and power levels. In other words, it won't turn you into a comic book superhero (sorry to disappoint!).

Key Information: RF signals are non-ionizing radiation, which means they do not have sufficient energy to cause chemical changes in cells or damage DNA like ionizing radiation does.

Why Should We Care About RF Exposure?

But don't get too comfortable just yet. While RF energy won't alter your DNA, it can still cause harm through a different mechanism: heat. Yep, just like your microwave oven (which, by the way, uses RF energy at 2.4 GHz), high levels of RF can heat up body tissues. And trust me, you don't want to cook your insides while making that awesome DX contact!

As the station licensee, you're responsible for ensuring that no one is exposed to RF radiation beyond the FCC limits. This includes you, your family, neighbors, and even passersby if your antenna is near public areas.

Key Information: The primary concern with RF exposure is tissue heating, not genetic damage. The station licensee is responsible for ensuring compliance with RF exposure limits.

RF Safety and Frequency Considerations

Here's something interesting: RF exposure limits vary with frequency. Why? Because the human body absorbs RF energy differently at different frequencies.

Around 50 MHz (in the 6-meter band), the Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE) limits have their lowest values because that's where the human body is most efficient at absorbing RF energy. At both higher and lower frequencies, our bodies absorb less energy, so the limits are slightly more lenient.

This makes sense when you think about it! 14\frac{1}{4} \frac{1}{4} wavelength on 6 meters is 1.5 meters (around 5 feet) which is pretty close to the height of a typical human, making the human body a pretty good antenna at these frequencies.

Key Information: MPE limits are most restrictive (have the lowest values) at around 50 MHz because human bodies absorb RF energy most efficiently at this frequency.

The Importance of Duty Cycle

When evaluating RF exposure, we don't just consider the peak power but also how long you're transmitting—what we call the "duty cycle." Duty cycle is the percentage of time that a transmitter is actually transmitting during the averaging time for RF exposure calculations.

Why does this matter? Because duty cycle directly affects the average exposure to radiation. If you transmit only 50% of the time instead of continuously, your average RF output is cut in half.

Here's the practical part: If you reduce your duty cycle from 100% to 50%, the allowable power density doubles. This means you could potentially use twice as much power while still staying within safe exposure limits. It's like a radio operator's two-for-one special!

Key Information: Duty cycle affects the average exposure to radiation. When duty cycle decreases by half (from 100% to 50%), the allowable power density doubles.

Physical Hazards of RF Energy

One direct hazard of RF energy that's often overlooked is what happens if you touch an antenna during transmission. Spoiler alert: it's not pleasant! Touching an antenna during transmission can cause RF burns to your skin due to the concentrated RF energy. These burns can occur even at relatively low power levels and may not be immediately noticeable.

Key Information: Never touch an antenna during transmission—it can cause RF burns to your skin.

Staying in Compliance with RF Safety Regulations

Now, here's the million-dollar question: How do we stay in compliance with RF safety regulations? It's easier than you might think:

Know Your Limits: The FCC has set Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE) limits. These vary based on frequency, power level, and whether it's a controlled environment (your shack) or uncontrolled (public areas).

Do the Math (or Let Computers Do It for You): You can determine whether your station complies with FCC RF exposure regulations in several ways:

By calculation based on FCC OET Bulletin 65

By calculation based on computer modeling

By measurement of field strength using calibrated equipment

Distance Is Your Friend: The further you are from the antenna, the less RF exposure you'll get. It's like social distancing, but for radio waves.

Watch Your Power: If you can make the contact with less power, do it. It's not just good manners; it's good safety practice.

Mind Your Duty Cycle: Continuous transmitting modes like FM expose you to more RF over time than intermittent modes like SSB.

Antenna Placement Matters: Mounting antennas higher up not only helps your signal but also reduces ground-level RF exposure. Win-win! The radiation pattern of the antenna also changes where the RF energy is focused and thus your exposure levels.

Be a Good Neighbor: Make sure your antennas aren't bombarding your neighbor's property with RF. They might not appreciate the unexpected RF spa treatment.

When in Doubt, Measure: If you're really concerned, you can get calibrated RF field strength meters to check your station's emissions.

Key Information: Several factors affect RF exposure: frequency and power level of the RF field, distance from the antenna to a person, and the radiation pattern of the antenna.

Actions to Reduce RF Exposure

If you find that your station might be causing excessive RF exposure, there are several actions you can take:

Relocate Antennas: Moving antennas further away from people is one of the most effective ways to reduce RF exposure. Even a small increase in distance can significantly reduce exposure levels due to the inverse square law (doubling the distance reduces the power density to one-quarter).

Reduce Power Output: If you can't move your antenna, consider reducing your transmitter power.

Use Directional Antennas: Point the main beam away from populated areas.

Limit Transmission Time: Reduce your duty cycle by transmitting less frequently or for shorter periods.

Key Information: Relocating antennas is an effective way to reduce RF exposure to people near an amateur station.

Keeping Your Station Compliant Over Time

Your station isn't a static entity—it evolves as you upgrade equipment, change antennas, or modify your operating habits. To make sure your station stays in compliance with RF safety regulations, you should re-evaluate it whenever you make a change to your transmitter or antenna system.

What worked safely with your 100-watt transceiver might not be safe when you add that shiny new linear amplifier. Similarly, changing from a simple wire antenna to a high-gain directional antenna could significantly alter your RF exposure patterns.

Key Information: Re-evaluate your station's RF exposure compliance whenever you change an item in your transmitter or antenna system.

The Bottom Line on RF Safety

RF safety is about awareness, not fear. With a little knowledge and some common-sense precautions, you can enjoy your radio adventures without worrying about turning into a human hotspot.

So go forth, make those contacts, experiment with antennas, but remember to keep a friendly distance from your radiating buddies. Your body will thank you, and hey, you'll probably get better signal reports too!

Stay safe, stay compliant, and keep those RF fields where they belong—in the air, not in your body!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T0C01:What type of radiation are radio signals?

Non-ionizing radiation

T0C12:How does RF radiation differ from ionizing radiation (radioactivity)?

RF radiation does not have sufficient energy to cause chemical changes in cells and damage DNA

T0C13:Who is responsible for ensuring that no person is exposed to RF energy above the FCC exposure limits?

The station licensee

T0C05:Why do exposure limits vary with frequency?

The human body absorbs more RF energy at some frequencies than at others

T0C02:At which of the following frequencies does maximum permissible exposure have the lowest value?

50 MHz

T0C11:What is the definition of duty cycle during the averaging time for RF exposure?

The percentage of time that a transmitter is transmitting

T0C10:Why is duty cycle one of the factors used to determine safe RF radiation exposure levels?

It affects the average exposure to radiation

T0C03:How does the allowable power density for RF safety change if duty cycle changes from 100 percent to 50 percent?

It increases by a factor of 2

T0C07:What hazard is created by touching an antenna during a transmission?

RF burn to skin

T0C06:Which of the following is an acceptable method to determine whether your station complies with FCC RF exposure regulations?

A:

By calculation based on FCC OET Bulletin 65

B:

By calculation based on computer modeling

C:

By measurement of field strength using calibrated equipment

All these choices are correct

T0C04:What factors affect the RF exposure of people near an amateur station antenna?

A:

Frequency and power level of the RF field

B:

Distance from the antenna to a person

C:

Radiation pattern of the antenna

All these choices are correct

T0C08:Which of the following actions can reduce exposure to RF radiation?

Relocate antennas

T0C09:How can you make sure your station stays in compliance with RF safety regulations?

By re-evaluating the station whenever an item in the transmitter or antenna system is changed

Chapter 6: Station Setup

Get ready to build your gateway to the world! In this chapter, we're learning about into the practical aspects of setting up and operating your amateur radio station. Whether you're planning a simple VHF/UHF setup or dreaming of expanding your capabilities, this chapter will guide you through the essentials.

We'll start by exploring must-have station accessories to complement your radio. You'll learn about power supplies, meters, and other gadgets that help your station function efficiently. We'll also cover proper grounding and interference prevention - crucial aspects that ensure your station performs well while playing nice with other electronics in your home.

Next, we'll take a deep dive into radio controls. You'll learn how to navigate the various knobs, buttons, and settings on both FM and all-mode transceivers. Understanding these controls is essential for getting the most out of your equipment and making successful contacts.

We'll then explore the fundamental components of radio communication - receivers, transmitters, and transceivers. You'll learn how these devices work and how they process signals, providing you with the technical foundation to better understand your equipment.

A significant portion of this chapter is dedicated to repeater operations - a mainstay of VHF/UHF communication. You'll discover how repeaters extend your range, the protocols for using them effectively, and even how internet-linked systems can connect you with hams worldwide.

We'll also cover troubleshooting common problems you might encounter, from interference issues to audio distortion. Finally, you'll get an introduction to basic test equipment and repair techniques that will help you maintain your station in top condition.

By the end of this chapter, you'll have the knowledge you need to set up, operate, and maintain your amateur radio station effectively. So grab your radio, and let's get your station up and running!

Section 6.1: Station Accessories

Welcome to the toy store of ham radio! Let's talk about the gadgets and gizmos that'll make your shack sing. As a new Technician, you might feel like a kid in a candy store with all the options out there, so let's focus on the must-haves and nice-to-haves for your VHF/UHF adventures.

Power Supplies

Unless you're running solely on batteries, you'll need a power supply. When setting up a mobile rig, power is crucial.

Key Information:

For a typical 50-watt output mobile FM transceiver, you'll need a power supply rated at 13.8 volts at 12 amperes

The function of a voltage regulator circuit is to control the amount of voltage from a power supply

Short, heavy-gauge wires should be used for a transceiver's DC power connection to minimize voltage drop when transmitting

This power supply plugs into a wall socket and delivers the DC power your radio needs. Inside, voltage regulators ensure your radio gets a steady, consistent voltage regardless of fluctuations.

Always keep the wires between your power supply and radio short and reasonably heavy gauge to minimize voltage drop and avoid wasting energy as heat.

Surge Protectors

Speaking of power, don't forget a good surge protector. It's like a shock absorber for your equipment, softening the blow of unexpected power spikes before they reach your radio's delicate circuits.

Digital Interfaces

For digital enthusiasts, connecting your radio to your computer can open up a whole new world of communication. This little box acts as your bridge to digital modes, unlocking exciting possibilities. When setting up your radio for digital modes, you'll be working with three main signals: receive audio, transmit audio, and push-to-talk (PTT).

Antenna Analyzers, SWR Meters, and Power Meters

Let's talk about antenna analyzers, SWR meters, and power meters. These tools help you tune your antennas and ensure your equipment is operating efficiently.

Key Information:

When selecting an accessory SWR meter, you should consider the frequency and power level at which the measurements will be made

An RF power meter should be installed in the feed line, between the transmitter and antenna

An antenna analyzer is like a Swiss Army knife for antenna work, while SWR meters and power meters are more straightforward. They connect "inline" between your transmitter and antenna to measure outgoing and reflected power. This tells you how well your antenna is performing.

When choosing these meters, make sure they're compatible with your frequency range and power levels. As you grow in the hobby, these tools will become invaluable companions in your shack.

Mobile Antennas

For mobile operation, several antenna mounting options are available:

Mag mounts (easy installation, no drilling)

Lip mounts (clamp to edge of hood/trunk)

Drill mounts (permanent, better performance)

Glass mounts (no metal surface needed)

Choose based on your needs and vehicle type. Proper installation is key for both performance and safety. There are even mounts which you can use to put the antenna from your handheld transceiver on the roof of your vehicle!

Mobile and Portable Operation Accessories

When operating from a vehicle or on the go with your handheld transceiver (HT), a few accessories can dramatically improve your experience:

For handheld operation:

Speaker-microphones let you keep your radio on your belt while operating

Earpieces or headsets are invaluable during public service events, bicycle mobile operation, or in noisy environments

Tactical PTT buttons can be attached to handlebars or clothing for easier operation when mobile

Extended battery packs for long operating sessions

For mobile installations:

External speakers improve audio clarity over road and engine noise

Microphone extension cables allow flexible microphone placement

Mounting brackets keep your radio secure and within reach while driving

Headsets can reduce distraction while operating mobile, though you should always take care with any such operation!

These accessories not only make operation more comfortable but can be critical for effective communication during public service events or emergencies when you need to hear and be heard clearly.

Remember, you don't need all this stuff to get started. A radio, an antenna, and a power source are all you really need to join the conversation. As your interests grow, you can add accessories that enhance your specific operating style.

Happy hamming, and we'll catch you on the air!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T4A01:Which of the following is an appropriate power supply rating for a typical 50 watt output mobile FM transceiver?

13.8 volts at 12 amperes

T6D05:What type of circuit controls the amount of voltage from a power supply?

Regulator

T4A03:Why are short, heavy-gauge wires used for a transceiver’s DC power connection?

To minimize voltage drop when transmitting

T4A02:Which of the following should be considered when selecting an accessory SWR meter?

The frequency and power level at which the measurements will be made

T4A05:Where should an RF power meter be installed?

In the feed line, between the transmitter and antenna

Section 6.2: Interference and Grounding

Alright, let’s step into the world of interference and grounding—or in other words, "The Art of Keeping Your Signals Clean and Your Neighbors Happy."

Interference: The Uninvited Guest

Interference is like the uninvited guest at your radio party. It comes in two flavors: the kind you cause (oops!) and the kind you receive (argh!).

Don't be "That Neighbor"

Your shiny new setup might be causing interference to your neighbors' electronic devices without you even knowing it. Signs of this can be distorted pictures on nearby TVs or your voice coming through someone's stereo (and trust me, they probably don't want to hear your Field Day plans).

To avoid being a pest, here are some tips:

Use the minimum power necessary to make your contact.

Make sure your antenna is properly tuned to avoid spurious emissions.

Consider using filters on your transmitter output to keep your signal clean.

Keep your station well-grounded (more on that in a bit).

Dealing with Unwanted Interference

Now, what about when you're on the receiving end of interference? It might sound like buzzing, clicking, or that annoying "brrrap" that drowns out the signal you're trying to hear. Common culprits include:

Power lines

Electric motors (like your fridge or a nearby AC unit)

LED lights (yes, even those eco-friendly bulbs can be radio unfriendly)

Poorly-made solar charge controllers

Computers and other electronic devices

To combat this, you might need to do some detective work. Try turning off devices one by one to isolate the source. Ferrite beads or chokes on power cords can often help tame these noisy beasts.

Grounding: The Foundation of a Good Station

Now, let's get down to earth—literally. Grounding is crucial for both safety and reducing interference. A good ground system is like the foundation of a house—you don't see it, but everything depends on it.

Key Information: As discussed already in Section 5.5, all external ground rods or earth connections should be bonded together with heavy wire or conductive strap to ensure proper grounding and safety!

Station Grounding Basics

For your station, you want a low-impedance path to ground. This means:

Use thick wire or a braided ground strap (the thicker, the better).

Keep it as short and straight as possible and avoid sharp bends.

Connect to a good earth ground (ground rods, cold water pipes, etc.).

Here's a pro tip: All your equipment should be grounded to a single point. This prevents "ground loops" which can cause all sorts of headaches. As recommended in the Safety chapter, if you have more than one ground rod or earth connection, be sure to bond them all together with heavy wire or conductive strap.

Remember, grounding isn't just about performance; it's also a safety issue. A good ground can help protect your equipment (and you!) from static buildup and can be part of your lightning protection system.

Grounding in Mobile Installations

When setting up a mobile transceiver in a vehicle, proper grounding is just as crucial as it is in your home station, but with a few extra considerations.

Key Information: The negative power return of a mobile transceiver should be connected at the 12-volt battery chassis ground, not to random metal parts of the vehicle.

The negative power return, or ground, should be connected directly to the 12-volt battery or the primary chassis ground. Avoid the temptation to ground your transceiver to any random metal part of the vehicle. While it might seem convenient, this can lead to poor grounding, ground loops, or differences in ground potential—potentially causing issues like alternator whine or other noise. The standard practice in mobile radio installations is to run both the positive and negative power leads directly to the battery, with fuses on both lines. The fuse on the ground lead protects the radio in rare situations where power could be fed backward—like during an improperly done jump-start.

Whenever possible, connect your ground to the battery directly or to the same point where the battery’s negative terminal is grounded to the vehicle chassis. Many vehicles have a common grounding point near the battery with a heavy-gauge wire already in place for this purpose. A well-grounded mobile installation not only improves your signal quality but also protects your equipment, ensuring that your mobile setup operates smoothly wherever your travels take you.

Be the Radio Detective

Dealing with interference and setting up proper grounding might not be as exciting as making your first contact, but it's what separates the novices from the pros. Plus, there's a certain satisfaction in solving these puzzles. It's like being a radio detective!

Every great detective starts with the clues closest to home. If your TV, speakers, or even your toaster (because, why not?) are acting up, solving the mystery there might just make your neighbor’s problem disappear too. No trench coat required—just a little persistence!

Now that you know how to keep your signals clean and your neighbors happy, let's take a closer look at the gear that makes it all possible—your radio itself!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T4A11:Where should the negative power return of a mobile transceiver be connected in a vehicle?

At the 12 volt battery chassis ground

Section 6.3: Receiver, Transmitter, Transceiver

What is a Receiver?

Alright, radio rookies, let's break down the building blocks of ham radio communication. First up, the receiver. Think of this as your radio's ears. It picks up those invisible waves floating through the air and turns them into something you can hear. A good receiver is like a skilled eavesdropper at a party—it can pick out the conversation you want to hear, even when there's a lot of noise around.

Key Information: A receiver's sensitivity is its ability to detect the presence of a signal, while its selectivity is its ability to discriminate between multiple signals.

Two key characteristics of receivers are:

Sensitivity: This is the receiver's ability to detect the presence of a signal. A more sensitive receiver can pick up fainter signals, letting you hear distant or low-power stations more clearly.

Selectivity: This refers to the receiver's ability to discriminate between multiple signals that are close together in frequency. Good selectivity helps you focus on the station you want without interference from nearby frequencies.

Inside the receiver, a key component called a mixer combines the incoming radio frequency (RF) signal with a signal from the local oscillator. This oscillator generates a signal at a specific frequency , and when mixed with the RF signal, it converts a signal from one frequency to another . This process is essential for tuning into different frequencies.

What is a Transmitter?

Now, let's talk about the transmitter—your radio's "mouth." The transmitter takes your voice (or data) and combines it with a radio frequency (RF) carrier signal. This combination process is called modulation, which is combining speech with an RF carrier signal . Think of it as wrapping your voice in an electromagnetic wave instead of sound waves, allowing your radio to broadcast your thoughts far and wide.

What is a Transceiver?

Key Information: A transceiver combines a receiver and transmitter into one device, which is what most modern amateur radio operators use.

Here's where it gets cool: most modern ham radio equipment combines both of these into one neat package called a transceiver. A transceiver is a device that combines a receiver and transmitter . One moment it's listening, the next it's talking. Flip a switch (or press a button), and you go from receiving to transmitting.

For you Technician class operators, you're most likely going to be using a VHF/UHF transceiver. These come in two main flavors:

Handheld Transceivers (HTs): These handy little radios fit right in your hand—hence the name "handheld!" In fact, since you can walk and talk with them, some people even call them "walkie-talkies!" They're portable, battery-powered, and perfect for local communications. Great for emergency prep or chatting while hiking!

Mobile Transceivers: These pack more punch and are designed to be installed in your vehicle or as a base station at home. They usually have more power and features than HTs.

Both types do essentially the same job—they receive and transmit. The main differences are in power output, features, and of course, size.

Specialized Uses and Frequency Conversion

Key Information: A transverter converts a transceiver's operating frequency to another band, allowing operation on bands not covered by your radio.

Here's a neat trick: some hams use specialized devices for extending their operating capabilities. A transverter is a device that converts the RF input and output of a transceiver to another band . For example, it might allow you to use your HF rig to operate on VHF or UHF frequencies by converting the signals between bands. This can be particularly useful for accessing bands that your primary radio doesn't cover.

Supplemental Accessories

To enhance your station's capabilities, you might consider some additional accessories:

Key Information: An RF power amplifier increases transmitted output power from a transceiver, while an RF preamplifier is installed between the antenna and receiver to improve reception of weak signals.

RF Power Amplifiers: These increase the transmitted output power from a transceiver , helping your signal reach further. They're particularly useful for HF operations or when you need extra oomph on VHF/UHF. Remember that more power is usually not the best solution! Before you boost your power, check things like your antenna and feedline—that will almost always give you more bang for your buck.

Some VHF/UHF power amplifiers have a SSB/CW-FM switch that sets the amplifier for proper operation in the selected mode . SSB (Single Sideband) and CW (Continuous Wave or Morse code) have different characteristics than FM (Frequency Modulation), so this switch helps the amplifier perform best for each mode.

RF Preamplifiers: These amplify weak incoming signals before they reach your receiver, improving sensitivity. They're often used for weak-signal work on VHF and above. An RF preamplifier should be installed between the antenna and receiver —ideally as close to the antenna as possible in order to boost the signal before you get any loss from the feed line.

Handheld and Mobile Antenna Considerations

Key Information: Using a handheld transceiver with a flexible antenna inside a vehicle results in reduced signal strength due to the shielding effect of the vehicle.

When using a handheld radio inside a vehicle, the metal body of the car can actually significantly reduce your signal strength. VHF and UHF signals (like those at 146 MHz and 440 MHz) are easily attenuated by metal structures.

The vehicle's metal body acts as an RF shield, blocking or substantially reducing radio wave propagation. This means that a handheld antenna inside a vehicle will have dramatically reduced signal strength due to the shielding effect of the vehicle . The metal surfaces reflect and absorb VHF and UHF signals, creating a "signal shadow" that limits your radio's effective range.

For best performance, consider:

Using an external magnetic mount antenna

Holding the radio near a vehicle window / where metal obstructions are minimized

Using a properly installed mobile radio instead of a handheld

Pro tip: If you must operate inside the vehicle, keep your handheld as high up and as close to a window as possible to minimize signal loss. And remember, if you're driving, safety comes first—consider using hands-free options or waiting until you're stopped to operate your radio.

Remember, whether you're using a simple handheld or a fancy base station, the principles are the same. Your radio is constantly switching between listening and talking.

So next time you key up that mic, take a moment to appreciate the magic happening inside your radio. It's turning your words into waves and back again, letting you be heard across town or around the world. Now that's pretty cool, isn't it?

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T7A01:Which term describes the ability of a receiver to detect the presence of a signal?

Sensitivity

T7A04:Which term describes the ability of a receiver to discriminate between multiple signals?

Selectivity

T7A05:What is the name of a circuit that generates a signal at a specific frequency?

Oscillator

T7A03:Which of the following is used to convert a signal from one frequency to another?

Mixer

T7A08:Which of the following describes combining speech with an RF carrier signal?

Modulation

T7A02:What is a transceiver?

A device that combines a receiver and transmitter

T7A06:What device converts the RF input and output of a transceiver to another band?

Transverter

T7A10:What device increases the transmitted output power from a transceiver?

An RF power amplifier

T7A09:What is the function of the SSB/CW-FM switch on a VHF power amplifier?

Set the amplifier for proper operation in the selected mode

T7A11:Where is an RF preamplifier installed?

Between the antenna and receiver

T9A07:What is a disadvantage of using a handheld VHF transceiver with a flexible antenna inside a vehicle?

Signal strength is reduced due to the shielding effect of the vehicle

Section 6.4: Operating Your Transceiver

Now that you understand what transceivers are and how they work, let’s explore how to operate them. We’ll start with the most common controls found on all radios and then introduce some specialized features you might encounter if you decide to explore additional modes beyond FM.

Basic Controls for All Transceivers

Every radio, regardless of type, has these fundamental controls:

Power/Volume: Turns the radio on/off and adjusts audio level

Frequency Entry: The keypad or VFO knob can be used to enter a transceiver's operating frequency.

Direct Entry: Use the keypad to type in the exact frequency

VFO Knob: Turn to tune up or down the band

PTT (Push-To-Talk): This button switches the transceiver from receive to transmit when grounded (pushed).

Memory Channels

Key Information: To enable quick access to a favorite frequency or channel on your transceiver, store it in a memory channel.

Rather than entering frequencies manually each time, store them in your radio's memory:

Program your frequently used channels (repeaters, simplex frequencies)

Then simply select from these saved channels using up/down buttons

Most radios store dozens or even hundreds of channels, each with its associated settings

Squelch Control

Key Information: The squelch function mutes the receiver audio when a signal is not present.

The squelch control sets a threshold—signals below this level are muted:

Too low: Constant background noise

Too high: Might miss weak signals

Just right: Silent until someone transmits

To hear weak FM signals, adjust the squelch threshold so that receiver output audio is on all the time, then slowly increase until background noise just disappears.

Scanning Function

Key Information: The scanning function tunes through a range of frequencies to check for activity.

This feature automatically searches for active channels:

When the radio detects a signal, it pauses so you can listen

Once the transmission ends, scanning resumes

This is useful for finding active repeaters or monitoring multiple channels

FM-Specific Controls

Tone Controls

Many repeaters require specific tones for access:

CTCSS (Continuous Tone-Coded Squelch System): Sub-audible tones sent along with your voice

DCS (Digital-Coded Squelch): Digital alternative to CTCSS

We will discuss these in more detail in the next section.

Key Information: DTMF (Dual-Tone Multi-Frequency) uses pairs of audio tones for sending commands. While most commonly used with repeaters, these can be used in many ways.

DTMF: The same technology as touch-tone phones, used to control repeater functions or access internet-linked systems

Repeater Controls

Key Information: The VHF/UHF reverse function lets you listen on a repeater's input frequency.

When working through repeaters, you'll use:

Offset: Sets the difference between transmit and receive frequencies for repeaters. Common offsets are plus or minus 600 kHz on 2 meters and plus or minus 5 MHz on 70 cm.

Reverse Function: Temporarily swaps your transmit and receive frequencies to listen on the repeater's input frequency.

Power Level Selection

Most FM transceivers offer selectable power levels:

Handhelds: Typically Low (0.5-1W) and High (5W)

Mobile rigs: Often Low, Medium, and High (5-50W+)

Always use the minimum power necessary for reliable communication. Lower power conserves battery life in handhelds and reduces the chance of interfering with other stations. Often, improving your antenna system will yield better results than simply increasing power.

All-Mode Transceiver Controls

While most Technician operators start with FM, transceivers that operate in multiple modes add capabilities like SSB, CW, and digital communications. Understanding these additional controls can be valuable knowledge if you decide to explore other modes available to Technicians, such as SSB on 10 meters or digital modes on various bands.

Mode Selection

Simply select the appropriate mode for your operation using the MODE control:

SSB (USB - Upper Sideband and LSB - Lower Sideband)

CW (Continuous Wave for Morse code)

AM (Amplitude Modulation)

FM (Frequency Modulation)

Digital (Sometimes labeled DATA or RTTY)

For VHF/UHF SSB operation, Upper Sideband (USB) is normally used.

Receiver Bandwidth Controls

Key Information: Having multiple receive bandwidth choices on a multimode transceiver permits noise or interference reduction by selecting a bandwidth matching the mode. For SSB reception, a 2400 Hz filter bandwidth provides the best signal-to-noise ratio.

As explained in Section 6.3, bandwidth controls let you adjust how "wide" a slice of the radio spectrum your receiver processes:

SSB: Typically 2400 Hz (best signal-to-noise ratio)

CW: Typically 250-500 Hz

AM: Typically 6 kHz

FM: Typically 10-15 kHz

Digital: Varies by mode

Narrower bandwidths reduce noise and interference but might affect audio quality. Wider bandwidths provide better fidelity but let in more noise.

Microphone Gain

Key Information: Excessive microphone gain on SSB transmissions causes distorted transmitted audio.

Unlike FM, where your microphone gain rarely needs adjustment, proper mic gain setting is critical for SSB:

Too high: Distorted audio that's difficult to understand

Too low: Weak signal that others will struggle to hear

Start with a moderate setting and get on-air reports to adjust it properly. Clear, undistorted audio is the goal.

RIT/Clarifier

Key Information: The RIT or Clarifier control can be used if the voice pitch of a single-sideband signal seems too high or low.

When operating SSB, you might notice that some stations sound too high-pitched or too low-pitched. The RIT (Receiver Incremental Tuning) control—sometimes called a Clarifier—allows you to adjust only your receive frequency without changing your transmit frequency, making the voice sound more natural.

Electronic Keyers for CW

Key Information: An electronic keyer assists in manual sending of Morse code.

If you're interested in Morse code, all-mode transceivers typically include an electronic keyer for use with a paddle-type Morse key. This feature helps generate properly timed dots and dashes, making your CW transmissions cleaner and more consistent.

Noise Reduction Features

All-mode transceivers often include noise reduction systems:

Noise Blanker: Helps reduce impulse noise like ignition noise

Digital Noise Reduction: Uses DSP to identify and reduce random noise

Notch Filter: Eliminates steady tones that can make reception difficult and can help reduce interference from an adjacent signal

These features enhance your receiver's ability to pick out desired signals by filtering out unwanted signals and noise.

Learning Your Transceiver

Every radio model is different, so take time to read your owner's manual. Understanding your specific radio's menu system and button functions will make operating much more enjoyable and avoid frustration when you're trying to make contacts.

All-mode transceivers have a steeper learning curve than FM-only radios, but don't be intimidated. Start with the basic controls you learned for FM operation, then gradually explore additional features as your interests expand.

The knowledge you've gained about transceiver operation creates a solid foundation if you later decide to explore other modes or frequency bands. Should you choose to continue your amateur radio journey and upgrade your license class, you'll already understand many of the operating principles needed to communicate across the country and around the world. But even as a Technician, this knowledge will help you make the most of your current operating privileges.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T4B02:Which of the following can be used to enter a transceiver’s operating frequency?

The keypad or VFO knob

T7A07:What is the function of a transceiver’s PTT input?

Switches transceiver from receive to transmit when grounded

T4B04:What is a way to enable quick access to a favorite frequency or channel on your transceiver?

Store it in a memory channel

T2B13:What is the purpose of a squelch function?

Mute the receiver audio when a signal is not present

T4B03:How is squelch adjusted so that a weak FM signal can be heard?

Set the squelch threshold so that receiver output audio is on all the time

T4B05:What does the scanning function of an FM transceiver do?

Tunes through a range of frequencies to check for activity

T2B06:What type of signaling uses pairs of audio tones?

DTMF

T2B01:How is a VHF/UHF transceiver’s “reverse” function used?

To listen on a repeater’s input frequency

T4B08:What is the advantage of having multiple receive bandwidth choices on a multimode transceiver?

Permits noise or interference reduction by selecting a bandwidth matching the mode

T4B10:Which of the following receiver filter bandwidths provides the best signal-to-noise ratio for SSB reception?

2400 Hz

T4B01:What is the effect of excessive microphone gain on SSB transmissions?

Distorted transmitted audio

T4B06:Which of the following controls could be used if the voice pitch of a single-sideband signal returning to your CQ call seems too high or low?

The RIT or Clarifier

T4A12:What is an electronic keyer?

A device that assists in manual sending of Morse code

Section 6.5: Repeater Operation

Alright, let's talk about repeaters - the range-extending marvels of the ham radio world. These helpful devices take your signal and shout it from the rooftops (or mountaintops) for you.

What's a Repeater?

Key Information: A repeater station simultaneously retransmits the signal of another amateur station on a different channel (frequency).

Imagine a radio relay station perched high up on a hill or tall building. It listens on one frequency and simultaneously retransmits what it hears on another. This extends your range way beyond what your little handheld or mobile rig could do on its own.

Now, only one signal can usefully exist on a given frequency at once, so the repeater can't talk on the same frequency you are talking on. Instead, when you transmit to a repeater, you're actually sending on one frequency (the input), and listening on another (the output). Don't worry, your radio will handle this automatically if you've set it up correctly.

Repeater Offsets

Key Information: Repeater offset is the difference between a repeater's transmit and receive frequencies. Common offsets are plus or minus 600 kHz on 2 meters and plus or minus 5 MHz on 70 cm.

When using repeaters, you need to know about offsets. An offset is the difference between a repeater's transmit and receive frequencies. Your radio needs to be set to the correct offset to communicate through a repeater effectively.

Here's a handy table of common repeater offsets for various amateur radio bands:

Band | Frequency Range | Common Offset
6m | 50-54 MHz | -500 kHz or -1 MHz
2m | 144-148 MHz | ±600 kHz
1.25m | 222-225 MHz | -1.6 MHz
70cm | 420-450 MHz | ±5 MHz
33cm | 902-928 MHz | -12 MHz or -25 MHz
23cm | 1240-1300 MHz | -12 MHz or -20 MHz

Remember, these are the most common offsets, but there can be exceptions:

On 2 meters, repeaters above 147 MHz typically use a positive offset, while those below use a negative offset.

Some areas might use non-standard offsets due to local frequency coordination.

Certain repeaters, especially those on less common bands, might use split frequencies that don't follow these standard offsets.

Most modern radios can automatically set the correct offset based on the frequency you input, but it's always good to double-check. When in doubt, consult a local repeater directory or ask a fellow ham in your area.

Pro Tip: You can use a VHF/UHF transceiver's "reverse" function to listen on a repeater's input frequency. This helps you determine if you can hear a station directly without going through the repeater—useful for checking signal quality or troubleshooting.

Accessing Repeaters

Key Information: Most repeaters use CTCSS tones or DCS codes for access. Difficulties accessing a repeater could be caused by improper offset, wrong CTCSS tone, or wrong DCS code. CTCSS (Continuous Tone-Coded Squelch System) is a sub-audible tone transmitted along with normal voice audio to open the squelch of a receiver.

Most repeaters require either a CTCSS (Continuous Tone-Coded Squelch System) tone, often called a PL (Private Line) tone, or a DCS (Digital Coded Squelch) code to access them. CTCSS is a sub-audible tone transmitted along with normal voice audio to open the squelch of a receiver. DCS, on the other hand, is a continuous stream of low-speed digital data.

Both serve the same purpose: they help prevent interference and unintended activations of the repeater. Your radio must be set to transmit the correct CTCSS tone or DCS code for the repeater to even recognize your signal. Check your local repeater directory or club information to find out which system a particular repeater uses.

Key Information: DTMF (Dual-Tone Multi-Frequency) uses pairs of audio tones for sending commands to repeaters and accessing systems like IRLP, but is different from CTCSS/DCS which are required for basic repeater access.

You'll also encounter DTMF (Dual-Tone Multi-Frequency) in repeater operation. DTMF uses pairs of audio tones and is the same technology used in touch-tone phones. Unlike CTCSS or DCS, DTMF is not used for basic repeater access but instead for controlling repeater functions, activating links to other systems, or accessing internet-connected systems like IRLP (which we'll discuss later in this section).

If you're having trouble accessing a repeater whose output you can hear, there could be several reasons:

You're using the wrong offset

You're using the wrong CTCSS tone

You're using the wrong DCS code

You're too far away or in a poor location for your signal to reach the repeater

Always double-check all these settings when programming a new repeater into your radio.

How Repeater Conversations Work

Key Information: When calling another station on a repeater, say the station's call sign, then identify with your call sign.

Here's how a typical repeater conversation flows:

You transmit on the input frequency (your radio adds the correct offset and tone).

The repeater picks up your signal and retransmits it on the output frequency.

Other hams in the area hear you on the repeater's output frequency.

When they respond, they transmit on the input frequency, and the repeater retransmits their signal on the output frequency, completing the communication cycle.

Calling someone on a repeater is simple: just say the call sign of the station you want to talk to, then identify with your call sign. For example: "W1ABC, this is K2XYZ." This is more of a convention than a rule, but it's an appropriate way to get someone's attention on a repeater.

Repeater Etiquette

Repeater etiquette is important since these are shared resources:

Listen before you transmit to avoid interrupting ongoing conversations.

Keep transmissions reasonably short and leave pauses for others to join.

Identify yourself using your callsign as required by FCC rules.

If you want to join an ongoing conversation, wait for a pause and say your callsign.

Like any equipment, the owner of the repeater gets to set the rules for its use (subject to FCC regulations). Keep in mind that each repeater may be a bit different in the conventions that people follow.

Calling on a Repeater

Key Information: To indicate you're listening on a repeater and looking for a contact, use your call sign followed by the word "monitoring".

Generally speaking we don't actually call "CQ" on a repeater – there isn't any reason we couldn't, but it is generally frowned upon with varying levels of intensity by different members of the community. Instead, to indicate that you're listening on a repeater and looking for a contact, use your call sign followed by the word "monitoring". For example: "K2XYZ monitoring."

Here are some other common phrases:

"This is KD7BBC, mobile and monitoring" – indicating both that you are moving around and that you are on the frequency, presumably happy to talk to someone if they want.

"KF7KGR listening" – shorter version of the same

"This is AC7DM. Anyone around to chat while I drive?" – more casual, but still fine

"This is NV7V, could I get a signal report?" – indicates that you aren't looking for a QSO, just to confirm how well you are getting into the repeater.

The specifics don't matter, as long as it's easy to understand and not deceptive.

Repeater vs. Direct Communication

When communicating through a repeater, you're operating in duplex mode as we discussed earlier - you're using two different frequencies (the repeater's input and output). This is different from direct station-to-station communication (called simplex operation).

Key Information: When using a repeater, you're transmitting and receiving on different frequencies. This contrasts with simplex operation where stations transmit and receive on the same frequency.

Sometimes, designated frequencies are specifically set aside for direct station-to-station communication without using repeaters. This helps keep repeaters available for those who truly need their range-extending capabilities. We'll cover simplex operation and these designated frequencies more thoroughly later in the book.

Linked Repeater Systems

Key Information: A linked repeater network is one where signals received by one repeater are transmitted by all the repeaters in the network.

Imagine a network of radio stations set up on different hilltops across a region. In a traditional setup, each repeater would serve only its local area. But in a linked repeater network, signals received by one repeater are transmitted by all the repeaters in the network.

It's like having a group text message - when one person sends a message, everyone in the group receives it regardless of their location. Similarly, when you transmit to one repeater in a linked network, your transmission gets relayed through the entire network of connected repeaters, greatly extending your communication range.

Linked repeaters are particularly valuable for:

Emergency communications across wide areas

Club nets that span multiple cities or counties

Special events where coordination is needed across a large region

Allowing mobile operators to stay connected while traveling long distances

Internet-Linked Repeaters and VoIP Systems

Key Information: Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a method of delivering voice communications over the internet using digital techniques.

Some repeaters aren't just linked through traditional radio connections—they use the internet to connect with other repeaters across vast distances. This is done using Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP), which is a method of delivering voice communications over the internet using digital techniques.

An amateur radio station that connects other amateur stations to the internet is called a gateway. These gateway stations are the bridges between the radio world and the internet, enabling global communication.

Two popular VoIP systems in amateur radio are IRLP and EchoLink:

IRLP (Internet Radio Linking Project)

The Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP) is a technique to connect amateur radio systems, such as repeaters, via the internet using Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP).

To use IRLP, over-the-air access to IRLP nodes is accomplished by using DTMF signals (those same tone pairs we mentioned earlier). You'll enter codes using your radio's keypad to connect to various IRLP nodes around the world.

EchoLink

EchoLink takes internet connectivity a step further by enabling an amateur station to transmit through a repeater without using a radio to initiate the transmission. You can use software on your computer or smartphone to connect directly to the system.

Before using the EchoLink system, you must register your call sign and provide proof of license. This verification process ensures that only licensed amateurs can access the system.

Why Use Repeaters?

Repeaters are excellent for local communications, emergency preparedness, and getting started in ham radio. They're a great way to meet other hams and learn about the local radio community. With internet-linked systems, you can even talk to hams around the world!

So find a local repeater, program it into your radio, and give it a try. Remember, when you key up that mic, you're connecting with fellow radio enthusiasts who share your passion for communication. Enjoy exploring the expanded world that repeaters open up for you! The best way to learn is to do.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T1F09:What type of amateur station simultaneously retransmits the signal of another amateur station on a different channel or channels?

Repeater station

T2A07:What is meant by "repeater offset”?

The difference between a repeater’s transmit and receive frequencies

T2A01:What is a common repeater frequency offset in the 2 meter band?

Plus or minus 600 kHz

T2A03:What is a common repeater frequency offset in the 70 cm band?

Plus or minus 5 MHz

T2B02:What term describes the use of a sub-audible tone transmitted along with normal voice audio to open the squelch of a receiver?

CTCSS

T2B04:Which of the following could be the reason you are unable to access a repeater whose output you can hear?

A:

Improper transceiver offset

B:

You are using the wrong CTCSS tone

C:

You are using the wrong DCS code

All these choices are correct

T2A04:What is an appropriate way to call another station on a repeater if you know the other station's call sign?

Say the station's call sign, then identify with your call sign

T2A09:Which of the following indicates that a station is listening on a repeater and looking for a contact?

The station’s call sign followed by the word “monitoring”

T2B03:Which of the following describes a linked repeater network?

A network of repeaters in which signals received by one repeater are transmitted by all the repeaters in the network

T8C07:What is Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP)?

A method of delivering voice communications over the internet using digital techniques

T8C06:How is over the air access to IRLP nodes accomplished?

By using DTMF signals

T8C10:What is required before using the EchoLink system?

Register your call sign and provide proof of license

T8C08:What is the Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP)?

A technique to connect amateur radio systems, such as repeaters, via the internet using Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP)

T8C09:Which of the following protocols enables an amateur station to transmit through a repeater without using a radio to initiate the transmission?

EchoLink

T8C11:What is an amateur radio station that connects other amateur stations to the internet?

A gateway

Section 6.6: Basic Repair and Testing

Introduction to Test Equipment

Let's get familiar with some essential skills for keeping your ham shack running smoothly: using test equipment and basic soldering.

The Multimeter: Your Ham Shack Swiss Army Knife

Key Information:

A multimeter can measure voltage, current and resistance.

An ammeter is used to measure electric current.

A meter displays an electrical quantity as a numeric value.

Your trusty multimeter is perhaps the most versatile and essential diagnostic tool in the ham shack. It typically combines at least three crucial measurement instruments: a voltmeter (to measure voltage) , an ammeter (to measure current) , and an ohmmeter (to measure resistance). When troubleshooting equipment issues, your first step should often be checking power supplies and connections with your multimeter.

Using a Multimeter Safely

Key Information:

A voltmeter is connected in parallel with a component to measure voltage.

An ammeter is connected in series with a component to measure current.

Ensure the circuit is not powered when measuring resistance to avoid damage to the meter.

Attempting to measure voltage when using the resistance setting* can damage your multimeter.

When measuring voltage, set your multimeter to the appropriate range (DC or AC) and connect it in parallel with the component - red probe to the positive point and black to negative or ground.

For current measurements, you must break the circuit and connect the meter in series so the current flows through the meter.

⚠️ WARNING: Never attempt to measure current by connecting the probes in parallel with a circuit - this can cause a short circuit and damage your meter or create a safety hazard.

Working with Capacitors

Key Information:

An increasing resistance reading on an ohmmeter indicates you're measuring a discharged capacitor that is charging.

Power supplies can store dangerous charges in filter capacitors even after being turned off.

When measuring a capacitor with an ohmmeter, you might notice the reading starts low and then increases. This is normal behavior for a discharged capacitor. As the ohmmeter applies a small voltage to make its measurement, it charges the capacitor, causing the apparent resistance to increase over time.

⚠️ WARNING: Always discharge capacitors safely before working on equipment, especially in power supplies which can store dangerous charges even after being turned off.

Measuring High Voltages

Key Information: When measuring high voltages, ensure that the voltmeter and leads are rated for the voltages to be measured.

Safety is paramount when measuring high voltages. Always ensure that your voltmeter and its leads are rated for the voltage you're measuring. Using a voltmeter rated for 50 volts to measure 1000 volts could damage your meter or cause serious injury.

Remember that some ham radio equipment, especially tube-based gear, can have dangerously high voltages even when unplugged. Those filter capacitors can hold a charge for a long time, so always discharge high-voltage capacitors before working on equipment.

Other Essential Test Equipment

Key Information: A dummy load prevents transmitting signals over the air when making (performing) tests and consists of a non-inductive resistor mounted on a heat sink.

SWR Meter: Measures the Standing Wave Ratio, telling you how well your antenna is matched to your transmitter. High SWR can indicate antenna problems and may damage your transmitter.

Wattmeter: Measures your transmitter's power output, helping you stay within legal limits and ensure proper functioning.

Dummy Load: Invaluable for testing transmitters without broadcasting a signal. It's essentially a fake antenna that converts your radio's output to heat, letting you tune and troubleshoot without causing interference.

Oscilloscope: For more advanced testing, an oscilloscope can visualize electrical signals, helping diagnose issues with modulation or signal quality.

The Art of Soldering

Key Information:

Acid-core solder should not be used for radio and electronic applications.

A cold solder joint appears rough or lumpy.

Soldering is a skill that can save you money and keep your equipment in top shape. Here are some soldering basics:

Use a soldering iron with adjustable temperature control (600-700°F/315-370°C for most electronics).

Always "tin" your soldering iron tip by applying a small amount of solder before making a connection.

Heat the joint, not the solder. Touch your iron to the components you're joining, then apply solder to the heated joint.

Use rosin-core solder for electronics. Never use acid-core solder, which can corrode your components.

Work in a well-ventilated area and always use safety glasses.

A good solder joint should be smooth and shiny, with a concave shape. If you see a joint that looks dull, rough, or lumpy, it's likely a "cold" solder joint that formed when parts weren't heated sufficiently. Cold joints can cause intermittent connections and should be redone.

Final Safety Reminder

Remember, safety first! Always unplug equipment before working on it, and be aware that capacitors can hold a charge even when the power is off. With these skills in your toolkit, you'll be well-equipped to handle basic repairs and keep your station in prime operating condition. Happy testing and soldering!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T7D07:Which of the following measurements are made using a multimeter?

Voltage and resistance

T6D04:Which of the following displays an electrical quantity as a numeric value?

Meter

T7D01:Which instrument would you use to measure electric potential?

A voltmeter

T7D04:Which instrument is used to measure electric current?

An ammeter

T7D02:How is a voltmeter connected to a component to measure applied voltage?

In parallel

T7D03:When configured to measure current, how is a multimeter connected to a component?

In series

T7D11:Which of the following precautions should be taken when measuring in-circuit resistance with an ohmmeter?

Ensure that the circuit is not powered

T7D06:Which of the following can damage a multimeter?

Attempting to measure voltage when using the resistance setting

T7D10:What reading indicates that an ohmmeter is connected across a large, discharged capacitor?

Increasing resistance with time

T0A11:What hazard exists in a power supply immediately after turning it off?

Charge stored in filter capacitors

T0A12:Which of the following precautions should be taken when measuring high voltages with a voltmeter?

Ensure that the voltmeter and leads are rated for use at the voltages to be measured

T7C01:What is the primary purpose of a dummy load?

To prevent transmitting signals over the air when making tests

T7C03:What does a dummy load consist of?

A non-inductive resistor mounted on a heat sink

T7D08:Which of the following types of solder should not be used for radio and electronic applications?

Acid-core solder

T7D09:What is the characteristic appearance of a cold tin-lead solder joint?

A rough or lumpy surface

Section 6.7: Interference and Troubleshooting

Welcome to the world of radio detective work! As a ham, you'll sometimes encounter interference or audio issues. Let's explore how to identify, prevent, and solve these problems.

Radio Frequency Interference

Key Information: Radio frequency interference (RFI) can be caused by fundamental overload, harmonics, and spurious emissions. These are all potential sources of interference to other devices.

Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) refers to unwanted radio energy interfering with your desired signals. It can come from various sources, including other radio transmitters, electronic devices, power lines, and motor-driven equipment.

Fundamental Overload

Key Information: Fundamental overload of a non-amateur radio or TV receiver by an amateur signal can be reduced or eliminated by blocking the amateur signal with a filter at the antenna input of the affected receiver.

Fundamental overload occurs when a strong nearby signal overwhelms a receiver, even if it's not on the frequency you're trying to receive. It's like trying to hear a whisper while someone's shouting nearby.

In non-amateur receivers (like TVs, radios, or cell phones), fundamental overload can happen when a nearby amateur transmitter is so strong that it overloads the receiver's front-end circuitry. This can cause interference even if the amateur signal isn't on a frequency close to what the device is trying to receive.

Signs might include hearing amateur radio transmissions unintentionally on a broadcast AM or FM radio because the receiver is unable to reject strong signals outside its intended band or simply not being able to pick anything up at all.

To address fundamental overload:

Reduce transmitter power if possible

Increase the distance between your antenna and affected devices

Install a band-pass filter at the input of the affected receiver to block out-of-band signals

Use a better-designed antenna that minimizes radiation in unwanted directions

Remember, just because a neighbor can hear your transmissions on their device doesn't necessarily mean you're transmitting illegally or on the wrong frequency. It could be a case of fundamental overload, which is often a receiver problem rather than a transmitter problem.

Harmonics and Spurious Emissions

Harmonics are multiples of the fundamental frequency you're transmitting on. For example, if you're transmitting on 146 MHz, harmonics could appear at 292 MHz, 438 MHz, and so on.

Spurious emissions are unwanted radio frequency outputs on frequencies other than the fundamental frequency and its harmonics.

Both harmonics and spurious emissions can cause interference to other services or devices operating on those frequencies.

Causes of harmonics and spurious emissions can include:

Overdriven amplifiers

Poor filtering in the transmitter

Faulty or poorly designed equipment

To minimize harmonics and spurious emissions:

Ensure your transmitter is properly tuned and not overdriven

Use appropriate low-pass filters on your transmitter output

Maintain your equipment and replace any faulty components

Understanding harmonics and spurious emissions is crucial for responsible amateur radio operation. These unwanted signals can cause interference far outside your intended transmission frequency, potentially affecting a wide range of devices and services.

Common Causes and Solutions

FM Deviation and Overmodulation

Key Information: Talking too loudly into the microphone causes your FM transmission audio to be distorted on voice peaks. This is known as overdeviation.

Cause: Speaking too loudly into the microphone or having the mic gain set too high.

Solution: Adjust your mic gain and speak at a normal volume. If others report distorted audio, try backing off the mic a bit.

Ferrite Chokes

Key Information: A ferrite choke can be used to cure distorted audio caused by RF current on the shield of a microphone cable.

Use: These are great for reducing RFI on cables.

How: Slip them over power cords, audio cables, or coax feedlines to suppress unwanted RF.

Filters

Key Information: A band-reject filter can reduce overload of a VHF transceiver by a nearby commercial FM station.

Band-reject filters: These can block out a specific frequency range causing interference. For example, you could use one to block signals from a nearby commercial FM station.

Low-pass filters: Use these on your transmitter output to reduce harmonics that might interfere with TVs or other devices.

Grounding

Proper grounding of your station can significantly reduce interference issues. Ensure all equipment is connected to a common ground point.

Dealing with Neighbor Complaints

Key Information: If a neighbor tells you that your station's transmissions are interfering with their radio or TV reception, you should first make sure that your station is functioning properly and that it does not cause interference to your own radio or television when it is tuned to the same channel.

If a neighbor complains about interference:

Take it seriously and be polite.

Verify your station is operating properly and not causing interference to your own devices.

Work with your neighbor to identify the offending device.

Make sure your station meets the standards of good amateur practice.

If it is your station, work on solutions like filters or adjusting operating times.

Remember that both you and your neighbor share responsibility in resolving interference issues. While you need to ensure your station is operating properly, sometimes the issue may be with their equipment's susceptibility to strong signals rather than a problem with your transmissions.

Troubleshooting Audio Issues

Distorted Audio through Repeaters

Key Information: If you receive a report that your audio signal through an FM repeater is distorted or unintelligible, it might be because your transmitter is slightly off frequency, your batteries are running low, or you are in a bad location.

Possible causes: Overdeviation, poor signal into the repeater, repeater issues, low batteries, being off-frequency.

Solutions: Check your transmit audio levels, try a different location, replace or charge batteries, ensure your radio is on frequency, or contact the repeater owner if the problem persists.

RF Feedback

Key Information: A sign of RF feedback in a transmitter or transceiver is garbled, distorted, or unintelligible voice transmissions.

Signs: Garbled, distorted, or unintelligible transmissions.

Causes: RF energy from your transmitter is getting back into your microphone or audio circuits. This creates a feedback loop where your transmitted signal interferes with its own audio input.

Solutions: Improve station grounding, use ferrite chokes on cables, ensure proper shielding of audio equipment, and adjust antenna placement to reduce RF in the shack.

TV Interference

Key Information: The first step to resolve cable TV interference caused by your amateur radio transmission is to be sure all TV feed line coaxial connectors are installed properly.

Interference to cable TV can often be resolved by ensuring all connections are tight and properly shielded. Sometimes, a low-pass filter on your transmitter output or high-pass filters on affected TV equipment can help.

Problems with cable TV interference are frequently caused by:

Loose connectors allowing your signal to leak in

Poorly shielded cables

Broken or damaged cable lines

Missing or damaged terminations on unused cable outlets

Remember, patience is key when troubleshooting. Methodically check each part of your station, and don't be afraid to ask for help from more experienced hams. With practice, you'll become a pro at keeping your signals clean and your neighbors happy!

Pro Tip: Keep a log of any interference issues and the steps you take to resolve them. This can be invaluable if you encounter similar problems in the future or need to demonstrate your efforts to resolve interference.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T7B03:Which of the following can cause radio frequency interference?

A:

Fundamental overload

B:

Harmonics

C:

Spurious emissions

All these choices are correct

T7B05:How can fundamental overload of a non-amateur radio or TV receiver by an amateur signal be reduced or eliminated?

Block the amateur signal with a filter at the antenna input of the affected receiver

T7B02:What would cause a broadcast AM or FM radio to receive an amateur radio transmission unintentionally?

The receiver is unable to reject strong signals outside the AM or FM band

T7B04:Which of the following could you use to cure distorted audio caused by RF current on the shield of a microphone cable?

Ferrite choke

T7B07:Which of the following can reduce overload of a VHF transceiver by a nearby commercial FM station?

Installing a band-reject filter

T7B06:Which of the following actions should you take if a neighbor tells you that your station’s transmissions are interfering with their radio or TV reception?

Make sure that your station is functioning properly and that it does not cause interference to your own radio or television when it is tuned to the same channel

T7B08:What should you do if something in a neighbor’s home is causing harmful interference to your amateur station?

A:

Work with your neighbor to identify the offending device

B:

Politely inform your neighbor that FCC rules prohibit the use of devices that cause interference

C:

Make sure your station meets the standards of good amateur practice

All these choices are correct

T7B10:What might be a problem if you receive a report that your audio signal through an FM repeater is distorted or unintelligible?

A:

Your transmitter is slightly off frequency

B:

Your batteries are running low

C:

You are in a bad location

All these choices are correct

T7B11:What is a symptom of RF feedback in a transmitter or transceiver?

Reports of garbled, distorted, or unintelligible voice transmissions

T7B09:What should be the first step to resolve non-fiber optic cable TV interference caused by your amateur radio transmission?

Be sure all TV feed line coaxial connectors are installed properly

Chapter 7: Operating Practices

Welcome to the heart of amateur radio - actually getting on the air and making contacts! In this chapter, we'll discuss the practical aspects of operating your station and communicating with other hams around the world.

We'll start with the fundamentals of FM operation, the mode you'll likely use most as a new Technician. You'll learn everything from calling procedures to handling signal issues, and understanding the quirks that make FM unique.

Next, we'll explore HF operation, giving you a taste of what's possible with your Technician privileges on the 10-meter band. Although your HF access is limited for now, this knowledge will be valuable both for the exam and for future adventures if you upgrade.

We'll also delve into public service and emergency communications - a proud tradition in amateur radio. You'll discover how organizations like ARES and RACES work, and how hams provide crucial communication support during disasters when other systems fail.

For those with an eye toward the sky, we'll introduce satellite operation - yes, as a Technician, you can communicate through satellites orbiting hundreds of miles above Earth! We'll cover the basics of tracking, operating modes, and making that first thrilling space contact.

Finally, we'll explore fun activities like radio direction finding (fox hunting), contesting, and using grid locators. These engaging pursuits combine technical skills with friendly competition and outdoor adventure.

By the end of this chapter, you'll have a solid foundation in amateur radio operating practices across a variety of modes and settings. You'll be ready to key up your mic with confidence, knowing you're part of a global community of communicators.

So, let's tune up and get ready to join the conversation on the airwaves!

Section 7.1: FM Operation

Alright, new hams, welcome to the world of FM (Frequency Modulation)—the go-to mode for many Technician class operators. FM offers clear, crisp, and relatively noise-free communication, which makes it ideal for everyday local contacts.

Key Information: FM is the most common voice mode for VHF/UHF communications. It provides clear audio with resistance to noise, but uses more bandwidth than other modes. When tuning an FM receiver, you must be precisely on frequency or the audio will be distorted.

Why FM?

FM is the default mode for most local communications, especially on VHF and UHF bands. While AM (Amplitude Modulation) gets jittery when there's electrical interference, FM keeps its cool, delivering clean audio even in noisy environments.

A disadvantage of FM compared to single sideband is that only one signal can be received at a time, even when two signals are on the same frequency. This is due to the "capture effect" we'll discuss shortly.

How FM Works

Here's how it works: instead of varying the strength of the signal (like AM does), FM varies the frequency slightly. It's like changing the pitch of your voice rather than the volume. This is why FM sounds so clear on your car radio—and why it’s perfect for local ham chats.

As we discussed in Section 3.5, there is also PM (Phase Modulation), which is so similar to FM in practical use that most hams don't know the difference. For convenience, we just refer to it as FM since the main difference lies in how the transmitter generates the signal.

Types of FM Operation

Now, let's talk about using FM in the ham world:

Simplex Operation: This is direct radio-to-radio communication. You and your buddy are on the same frequency, taking turns to transmit and receive. It's great for local chats or emergency communications when repeaters might be down.

Handy tip: 146.520 MHz is the national calling frequency for FM simplex operations in the 2 meter band. It’s like the radio equivalent of a public square—used to make initial contact before moving to a different frequency, or just a good place to listen for activity while you're on the road.

Repeater Operation: Remember those range-extending marvels we talked about earlier? Most VHF and UHF repeaters use FM. They listen on one frequency and transmit on another, vastly increasing your coverage area.

Narrow Band FM: Many modern radios use Narrow Band FM to allow more channels in the same frequency space. Think of it like fitting more cars into a parking lot by shrinking the spaces just a little.

Key Information: Simplex means transmitting and receiving on the same frequency. The national FM simplex calling frequency for 2 meters is 146.520 MHz. When using a repeater, you're operating in duplex mode (transmitting and receiving on different frequencies).

FM Operating Tips

When operating FM, keep these tips in mind:

Speak clearly and at a normal pace. No need to shout—the mic is right there!

Leave a pause between transmissions. This gives others a chance to break in or call for help.

Use simplex when possible. It keeps repeaters available for those who truly need the extended range.

Tune accurately: If you tune an FM receiver above or below a signal’s frequency, the result will be distortion of the signal’s audio. Other modes may sound off-pitch when you're slightly off frequency, but FM just sounds bad.

Key Information: Over-deviation in FM transmission happens when you talk too loudly into the microphone, causing distortion on voice peaks. The solution is to talk farther away from the microphone, not louder.

FM Quirks

FM has some quirks you should be aware of:

Capture Effect: The strongest signal wins. If two stations transmit at the same time on the same frequency, you'll usually only hear the stronger one. If they’re close in strength, you may hear garbled audio—or nothing at all.

Near-Far Problem: A nearby station can overpower a more distant repeater, especially if their frequency is close. Try repositioning or using a directional antenna to help.

Common Radio Codes

Historically, operators using Morse code (CW) needed quick, standardized ways to express common messages. While these shortcuts aren't necessary in voice communication, they've become a lasting part of ham radio culture. We won't cover all of them here, but these are some of the most common— including a few you'll need to recognize for your exam:

QSY – "I'm changing frequency" or "Change your frequency to..."

QTH – "My location is..." Used to tell others where you are.

QRM – "I'm getting interference from other stations."

QRN – "I'm getting interference from atmospheric noise." Think thunderstorm static.

QSL – "I confirm" or "I understand." Like saying "roger" or "copy."

QRZ – "Who is calling me?" Used when someone is calling but you didn’t catch the callsign.

73 – "Best regards" or "Goodbye."

88 – "Love and kisses." (Often used by ham couples or close friends.)

CQ – "Calling any station." Use this when you want someone—anyone—to come back to you.

DX – Refers to distance. "Working DX" means you're trying to make long-distance or foreign contacts.

Key Information: The procedural signal "CQ" means "calling any station"—it’s how you start a conversation. "QSY" means to change frequency, and "QRM" refers to interference from other stations.

These codes and abbreviations are part of ham radio's unique language. They help streamline communication and are understood globally. Knowing them will make you sound like a pro—and they also show up on the test!

So there you have it—FM in a nutshell. It's beginner-friendly, reliable, and perfect for everyday conversations. Whether you’re checking into a net or chatting across town, FM is probably your go-to. Enjoy it!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T4B12:What is the result of tuning an FM receiver above or below a signal’s frequency?

Distortion of the signal’s audio

T8A12:Which of the following is a disadvantage of FM compared with single sideband?

Only one signal can be received at a time

T2A02:What is the national calling frequency for FM simplex operations in the 2 meter band?

146.520 MHz

T2A11:What term describes an amateur station that is transmitting and receiving on the same frequency?

Simplex

T7B01:What can you do if you are told your FM handheld or mobile transceiver is over-deviating?

Talk farther away from the microphone

T2B05:What would cause your FM transmission audio to be distorted on voice peaks?

You are talking too loudly

T2B11:Which Q signal indicates that you are changing frequency?

QSY

T2B10:Which Q signal indicates that you are receiving interference from other stations?

QRM

T2A08:What is the meaning of the procedural signal “CQ”?

Calling any station

Section 7.2: HF Operation

Alright, new Technicians, let's take a peek into the world of HF (High Frequency) operation. Now, I know what you're thinking: "But I'm a Technician, I don't have many HF privileges!" True, but you do have some, and understanding HF operation is still useful both for the license exam and for possible future operations if you upgrade your license!

Technician HF Privileges

As a Technician, you have voice privileges on a small slice of the 10-meter band (28.3 to 28.5 MHz), which allows for long-distance communication through skywave propagation when conditions are right. Think of this as your foot in the door to HF—it’s a whole different world compared to VHF/UHF!

But wait, there's more! If you're feeling adventurous, as a Technician, you can also use up to 200 watts for CW (Morse code) on the 15, 40, and 80-meter bands. So, while your voice privileges are limited, you still have plenty of opportunities to explore HF!

What Makes HF Special

Here's what makes HF special:

Long-Distance Communication: As we discussed in Section 3.4, HF waves can reflect off the ionosphere, letting you talk around the world. It's like skipping stones on a pond, but with radio waves!

Varying Conditions: HF propagation changes with the time of day, season, and solar activity. One day you might chat with someone in Australia, the next day you might struggle to reach the next state.

Different Modes: While you're mostly limited to voice as a Technician, you'll hear all sorts of modes on HF - SSB (Single Sideband), CW (Morse Code), and various digital modes.

Key Information: CW stands for "Continuous Wave," which is another name for a Morse code transmission.

Though it might seem outdated to newcomers, CW remains popular on the HF bands due to its efficiency and ability to get through when voice signals can't.

HF Operating Tips

Now, let's talk about actually using that 10-meter privilege:

Key Information: Before calling CQ, you should always listen first and make sure that the frequency is not already in use.

Listen First: Always listen before transmitting. HF bands can be crowded, and you don't want to interrupt ongoing conversations.

Sideband Selection: For voice on 10 meters and most HF bands above 10 MHz, you'll use USB (Upper Sideband). However, on HF bands below 10 MHz (like 40, 80, and 160 meters), LSB (Lower Sideband) is the convention. Remember: "Ten and up, USB; below ten, LSB." It's like choosing the right lane on a highway - using the correct sideband ensures clear communication and follows ham radio etiquette.

Key Information: When voice messages contain unusual words, the standard technique to ensure they are received correctly is to spell the words using a standard phonetic alphabet.

Speak Clearly: HF can be noisy. Enunciate your words and use the standard phonetic alphabet for your callsign to ensure your transmission is received correctly.

Be Patient: HF contacts often involve more back-and-forth than VHF/UHF. Signal reports and location exchanges are common.

Watch for Openings: 10 meters can suddenly come alive when conditions are right. Keep an ear out for increased activity.

Calling CQ and Responding

Calling CQ (seeking a contact) and responding to CQ calls are fundamental skills in HF operation. Here's how to do it right:

Calling CQ:

Listen first to make sure the frequency is clear.

Transmit and ask if the frequency is in use – someone may have needed to step away for a moment causing a pause in an active QSO.

Announce something along the lines of "CQ CQ CQ, this is [your callsign]" (repeat 2-3 times).

End with "CQ and listening" or similar.

Example: "CQ CQ CQ, this is KA1ABC, Kilo Alpha One Alpha Bravo Charlie calling CQ and listening."

When operating in most HF bands you are using a small amount of bandwidth for a large stretch of frequencies, so it's often a good idea to have a slightly longer "CQ" message so you are talking long enough for someone who is scanning through the band to hear you. Make sure to indicate in some way that you're done because with SSB there is no carrier to drop out – there is no audible difference between transmitting and not talking and actually being done.

Key Information: When responding to a station calling CQ, you should transmit the other station's call sign followed by your own call sign.

Responding to a CQ:

Wait for the station to finish their CQ call.

Respond with the calling station's callsign, followed by your own callsign.

Use standard phonetics for clarity.

Example: If W1XYZ calls CQ, you might respond: "W1XYZ, this is KA1ABC, Kilo Alpha One Alpha Bravo Charlie."

Remember, if the bands seem "dead" it could be because conditions are bad – but it could also be that everyone else is also listening for someone else to call. Don't be afraid to be the first person to make the call!

HF Quirks

Some HF quirks to remember:

Fading: Signals can fade in and out as conditions change even over a brief time period. This is normal on HF, so don't panic if a station suddenly disappears.

QRM and QRN: Ham lingo for man-made interference and natural noise. You'll hear a lot more of both on HF compared to VHF/UHF.

Even with limited HF privileges, you can start exploring this fascinating part of ham radio. Listen to the 10-meter band when you can. You might catch a "band opening" and make your first DX (long distance) contact. Who knows? You might just catch the HF bug and start studying for your General license!

Remember, HF operation is an art as much as a science. It takes patience and practice, but the thrill of making that first intercontinental contact is something you'll never forget. Happy HFing, and may the ionosphere be ever in your favor!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T8D09:What is CW?

Another name for a Morse code transmission

T2A12:What should you do before calling CQ?

A:

Listen first to be sure that no one else is using the frequency

B:

Ask if the frequency is in use

C:

Make sure you are authorized to use that frequency

All these choices are correct

T2C03:What technique is used to ensure that voice messages containing unusual words are received correctly?

Spell the words using a standard phonetic alphabet

T2A05:How should you respond to a station calling CQ?

Transmit the other station’s call sign followed by your call sign

Section 7.3: Public Service and Emergency Operations

Alright, radio heroes in training, let's talk about one of the coolest parts of ham radio: using our skills to help our communities. Whether it's assisting during disasters or keeping your local marathon running smoothly, ham radio operators play a crucial role in public service.

Key Information: In amateur radio, the term "traffic" refers to messages exchanged by net stations. Good traffic handling means passing messages exactly as received.

Emergency Communications

When cell phones fail and the power's out, guess who's still chatting away? That's right, ham radio operators! Here's what you need to know:

ARES (Amateur Radio Emergency Service):

ARES is a group of licensed amateurs who have voluntarily registered their qualifications and equipment for communications duty in the public service. Run by the ARRL (American Radio Relay League), these volunteers provide emergency communication support when other systems fail.

Local ARES groups operate across the country, ready to assist during disasters or public events. Members train together, participate in drills, and remain on call to help their communities. You don't need to be an ARRL member to join ARES.

The main purpose of ARES is providing reliable communication during emergencies, whether relaying messages for emergency services or helping coordinate response efforts.

RACES (Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service):

RACES is an FCC Part 97 amateur radio service for civil defense communications during national emergencies. Unlike the volunteer-focused ARES, RACES operates under the authority of government agencies during civil emergencies.

To participate in RACES, you need to be an FCC-licensed amateur radio operator who's also certified and enrolled with a civil defense organization. During a declared emergency, RACES stations can only communicate with other RACES stations, government stations, or authorized amateur stations.

RACES provides a structured, government-coordinated approach to emergency communications, handling everything from public safety alerts to coordinating disaster relief efforts.

Key Information: The difference between ARES and RACES:

ARES is a volunteer organization of amateur operators providing public service communications

RACES is an FCC-regulated service specifically for civil defense communications during national emergencies

Emergency Nets:

Nets are organized groups of stations that meet on a specific frequency to exchange information. They can be routine (like weekly club check-ins) or activated for emergencies and special events.

The Net Control Station (NCS) is responsible for calling the net to order and directing communications between stations checking in. As a participant, when participating in a net, you should transmit only when directed by the net control station.

The NCS has several key duties:

Starting the net with announcements and inviting check-ins

Managing communications flow between participants

Facilitating message exchange (traffic) between stations

Good traffic handling is essential – passing messages exactly as received without editing or deciding which messages are important enough to relay.

Key Information: FCC rules ALWAYS apply to the operation of amateur radio stations. However, amateur station control operators are permitted to operate outside their frequency privileges in situations involving the immediate safety of human life or protection of property.

Formal Traffic and Radiograms

When you're participating in emergency communications or public service events, you might hear the term "formal traffic." This refers to official messages, often called radiograms, that are passed from one station to another in a structured format. These messages are crucial during emergencies when accurate and efficient communication is needed.

Radiograms are standardized message formats used in amateur radio to relay information accurately through networks like the National Traffic System (NTS). The key parts of a radiogram include:

Preamble: Contains the information needed to track the message including message number, precedence (priority), origin date/time, and originating station's call sign.

Check: Refers to the number of words or word equivalents in the text portion of the message. Operators use this to verify that the message was received completely and correctly.

Text: The actual message content, typically kept concise for accurate transmission.

Address and Signature: Identifies the recipient and sender of the message.

Radiograms are used in both routine communications and in emergency situations. Handling formal traffic using radiograms is a key skill for any ham involved in public service or emergency communications. By mastering radiograms, you help ensure that critical messages get through, even when other communication systems are down.

Key Information: When handling message traffic, focus on accuracy. Messages should be passed exactly as received without deciding whether they're worthy of relay or delivery.

Non-emergency Public Service & Operating Guidelines

Ham radio operators also provide valuable communication support for non-emergency community events like marathons, parades, and weather spotting networks. When participating in any public service activity:

Follow the Net Control Station's instructions

Keep transmissions brief and focused

Use plain language and spell unusual words using a standard phonetic alphabet for clarity

Remember these key regulations:

The FCC rules always apply to the operation of amateur stations, even though there are provisions for emergencies

Amateur operators cannot accept compensation for providing communications (more in Section 8.6)

Participating in these activities builds skills that are valuable during actual emergencies while helping your community. Whether you're supporting a local 5K or providing critical communication during a disaster, you're part of a proud tradition of amateur radio public service.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T2C05:What does the term “traffic” refer to in net operation?

Messages exchanged by net stations

T2C06:What is the Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES)?

A group of licensed amateurs who have voluntarily registered their qualifications and equipment for communications duty in the public service

T2C04:What is RACES?

An FCC part 97 amateur radio service for civil defense communications during national emergencies

T1A10:What is the Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES)?

A:

A radio service using amateur frequencies for emergency management or civil defense communications

B:

A radio service using amateur stations for emergency management or civil defense communications

C:

An emergency service using amateur operators certified by a civil defense organization as being enrolled in that organization

All these choices are correct

T2C02:Which of the following are typical duties of a Net Control Station?

Call the net to order and direct communications between stations checking in

T2C07:Which of the following is standard practice when you participate in a net?

Unless you are reporting an emergency, transmit only when directed by the net control station

T2C08:Which of the following is a characteristic of good traffic handling?

Passing messages exactly as received

T2C01:When do FCC rules NOT apply to the operation of an amateur station?

FCC rules always apply

T2C09:Are amateur station control operators ever permitted to operate outside the frequency privileges of their license class?

Yes, but only in situations involving the immediate safety of human life or protection of property

T2C10:What information is contained in the preamble of a formal traffic message?

Information needed to track the message

T2C11:What is meant by “check” in a radiogram header?

The number of words or word equivalents in the text portion of the message

Section 7.4: Amateur Satellite Operation

Alright, space cadets, strap in for a journey to the final frontier of ham radio - satellite operation! Yes, you heard that right. As a Technician, you can communicate through satellites orbiting hundreds of miles above Earth, extending your radio's reach beyond the horizon and potentially around the globe. How cool is that?

Key Information:

According to FCC Part 97, a space station is an amateur station located more than 50 km above Earth's surface.

Any amateur holding a Technician class or higher license can communicate through amateur satellites.

Any amateur holding a Technician class or higher license may contact the International Space Station (ISS) on VHF bands when it passes overhead.

What are Amateur Satellites?

Amateur satellites, often called "OSCAR" (Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio), are like space-based repeaters. They receive signals on one frequency (uplink) and retransmit them on another (downlink). It's like playing cosmic ping-pong with your radio waves!

Key Information:

A LEO satellite is a satellite in Low Earth Orbit, typically between 100 to 1,200 miles above Earth.

When a satellite is operating in "U/V mode," the satellite uplink is in the 70 centimeter band (UHF) and the downlink is in the 2 meter band (VHF).

Amateur radio satellites commonly use multiple transmission modes including SSB, FM, CW, and data.

These space speedsters zip around Earth and pass overhead several times a day. A "pass" refers to the portion of the satellite's orbit when it's visible from your location on Earth - when it's above your horizon and you can communicate with it. Each pass typically only lasts 5 to 15 minutes, so you've got to be quick! Most amateur satellites are LEOs (Low Earth Orbit satellites), which makes them accessible to operators with modest equipment.

Satellite Beacons and Telemetry

Key Information:

A satellite beacon is a transmission from a satellite that contains status information about the health and status of the satellite.

Anyone may receive telemetry from a space station - these transmissions aren't encrypted and are meant to be monitored by amateur operators worldwide.

Satellite beacons are special transmissions that satellites send out regularly, like a space-based lighthouse. These beacons typically transmit telemetry data that can include battery voltage levels, temperature readings, operating mode, and spacecraft orientation.

Satellite Signal Characteristics

Key Information:

Spin fading of satellite signals is caused by rotation of the satellite and its antennas.

Doppler shift in satellite communications is an observed change in signal frequency caused by relative motion between the satellite and Earth station.

As a satellite rotates in space, its antennas change orientation relative to Earth, causing the signal strength to vary periodically - almost like a cosmic lighthouse effect. This phenomenon, called spin fading, is why satellite operators need to be aware of the satellite's rotational characteristics.

With Doppler shift, as the satellite approaches, the frequency appears higher, and as it moves away, it seems lower - just like the changing pitch of a passing train's whistle. This means you'll need to adjust your frequency during the pass to compensate for this effect.

Tracking and Operating Satellites

Key Information:

Satellite tracking programs provide maps showing the real-time position of satellites, pass timing information, and the apparent frequency including Doppler shift effects.

These programs use Keplerian elements as inputs - a set of numbers that describe the satellite's orbit.

Using excessive uplink power can block access to the satellite by other users.

Your signal strength on the downlink should be about the same as the beacon to ensure your uplink power is appropriate. This means you should listen to your own signal as it's retransmitted by the satellite and compare it to the strength of the satellite's beacon signal. If your signal is much stronger than the beacon, reduce your power; if it's weaker, you might need to increase power or improve your antenna pointing.

Here's what you need to know to get started:

Frequencies: Most ham satellites operate on VHF and UHF bands, right in your Technician wheelhouse. You'll often use one band for uplink and another for downlink.

Tracking: Satellites move fast! You'll need tracking programs to know when they're passing overhead. These programs use mathematical formulas for predicting where a satellite will be at any given time.

Antennas: While you can make some contacts with a handheld and its stock antenna, directional antennas work much better for satellite communications.

Power: Unlike terrestrial repeaters, you don't need much power. Always use just enough power to make contact. Too much power can actually cause problems for other users trying to access the satellite at the same time.

Types of Satellite Operations

Amateur satellites support various types of operations:

FM Satellites: Great for beginners. They work just like a repeater in the sky.

Linear Transponder Satellites: These receive a range of frequencies in one band and retransmit them in another band.

International Space Station (ISS): The ISS often has amateur radio equipment onboard, allowing astronauts to make contacts with Earth-bound hams.

Satellite operation might seem daunting, but it's incredibly rewarding. Start by listening to familiarize yourself with satellite passes before transmitting. Use tracking software to plan your operations, and always be mindful of your power levels.

Remember, every time you make a satellite contact, you're participating in a grand space adventure - using technology orbiting Earth at thousands of miles per hour to chat with fellow hams. Now that's taking your radio hobby to new heights!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T1A07:What is the FCC Part 97 definition of a space station?

An amateur station located more than 50 km above Earth's surface

T1E02:Who may be the control operator of a station communicating through an amateur satellite or space station?

Any amateur allowed to transmit on the satellite uplink frequency

T1B02:Which amateurs may contact the International Space Station (ISS) on VHF bands?

Any amateur holding a Technician class or higher license

T8B10:What is a LEO satellite?

A satellite in low earth orbit

T8B08:What is meant by the statement that a satellite is operating in U/V mode?

The satellite uplink is in the 70 centimeter band and the downlink is in the 2 meter band

T8B04:What mode of transmission is commonly used by amateur radio satellites?

A:

SSB

B:

FM

C:

CW/data

All these choices are correct

T8B01:What telemetry information is typically transmitted by satellite beacons?

Health and status of the satellite

T8B05:What is a satellite beacon?

A transmission from a satellite that contains status information

T8B11:Who may receive telemetry from a space station?

Anyone

T8B09:What causes spin fading of satellite signals?

Rotation of the satellite and its antennas

T8B07:What is Doppler shift in reference to satellite communications?

An observed change in signal frequency caused by relative motion between the satellite and Earth station

T8B03:Which of the following are provided by satellite tracking programs?

A:

Maps showing the real-time position of the satellite track over Earth

B:

The time, azimuth, and elevation of the start, maximum altitude, and end of a pass

C:

The apparent frequency of the satellite transmission, including effects of Doppler shift

All these choices are correct

T8B06:Which of the following are inputs to a satellite tracking program?

The Keplerian elements

T8B02:What is the impact of using excessive effective radiated power on a satellite uplink?

Blocking access by other users

T8B12:Which of the following is a way to determine whether your satellite uplink power is neither too low nor too high?

Your signal strength on the downlink should be about the same as the beacon

Section 7.5: Fun with Amateur Radio

Alright, radio adventurers, buckle up! We're about to explore some of the coolest, quirkiest, and downright awesome things you can do with your ham radio license. Let's start with a few activities that you might encounter on the exam.

Key Information: Radio direction finding is used to locate sources of noise interference or jamming. It involves using directional antennas and receivers to determine the location of a radio signal.

Fox Hunting and Direction Finding

Ever fancy yourself as a radio detective? Then you'll love fox hunting! In ham radio, a "fox" is a hidden transmitter, and your job is to find it using your radio skills and some clever equipment. It's like a high-tech game of hide-and-seek. Here's how it works:

Someone sets up a low-power transmitter (the "fox") in a secret location.

Hunters use directional antennas to track down the signal.

The first person or team to find the transmitter wins!

Fox hunting helps you develop valuable skills like understanding radio wave propagation, emergency communications practice, and hands-on experience with directional antennas. To get started, you just need a handheld radio, a directional antenna (like a Yagi) , and an attenuator. Many clubs organize regular fox hunts, making it a great way to meet other hams and have some outdoor radio fun.

While this is often done as a fun activity, it's also a genuinely useful skill—especially when it comes to tracking down sources of interference or jamming.

🔥 A few local hams heard complaints from neighbors that garage doors around the neighborhood had mysteriously stopped working. Curious, they decided to investigate with a spectrum analyzer—and discovered a strong signal sitting right on the frequency used by the garage door openers. Naturally, they grabbed their direction-finding gear to investigate.

The signal led them straight to the garage of one of the hunters. A repeater setup inside had developed a loose connection, which allowed signals from the repeater and a nearby broadcast station to mix and produce unintended interference.

The operator responsible—who may or may not have been a primary contributor to this very book—was mildly surprised and quietly mortified. But that's the value of direction-finding: it works, even when you're the problem.

Contesting

Ever felt the thrill of a race? Well, ham radio has its own version of high-speed competition - Contesting! It's an operating activity that involves contacting as many stations as possible during a specified period. Here's the scoop:

What's a contest? It's an event where hams compete to make the most contacts, often with specific goals like working different countries, states, or grid squares. Some last a few hours, others a full weekend. It's like a global radio party!

How does it work? You'll exchange brief info with each station you contact - usually a signal report and some other data like your location or a serial number. When contacting another station in a contest, good procedure is to send only the minimum information needed for proper identification and the contest exchange. It's not the time for a lengthy chat.

Why contest? It's a great way to improve your operating skills, test your station's performance, and maybe snag some rare locations for awards. Plus, the adrenaline rush is real!

Get on the air! Many contests have sections for newcomers or low-power stations. It's a perfect way to dip your toes into the contesting waters.

Key Information: Contesting is a popular operating activity where operators try to contact as many stations as possible during a specified time period. Good contest procedure is to send only the minimum required information.

Grid locators

Now, let's talk about a cool tool used in many contests: grid locators. A grid locator is a letter-number designator assigned to a geographic location on Earth. For example, 'FM18' covers the Washington D.C. area. In contests, you might exchange grid squares instead of states or countries. It's like a global game of battleship! Grid locators aren't just for contests - they're useful for satellite operations, VHF/UHF work, and even general ragchewing when you want to share your location.

Here are some examples:

Landmark | Address | City, State, ZIP | Grid Locator
Statue of Liberty | Liberty Island | New York, NY 10004 | FN20xq
Golden Gate Bridge | Golden Gate Bridge | San Francisco, CA 94129 | CM87st
White House | 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW | Washington, D.C. 20500 | FM18lv
Space Needle | 400 Broad St | Seattle, WA 98109 | CN87to
Graceland | 3764 Elvis Presley Blvd | Memphis, TN 38116 | EM45xb

These examples show how grid locators can pinpoint locations across the United States. Notice how the first two characters (like FM, CM, etc.) give a rough idea of the region, while the following characters narrow down the specific location. This system allows hams to quickly communicate their approximate location without needing to exchange detailed coordinates.

Beyond the Exam: More Ham Radio Adventures

Now that we've covered the operating activities you need to know for the exam, let's explore some other exciting aspects of ham radio. While these topics won't be on your Technician test, they represent the incredible diversity of this hobby and might inspire your next radio adventure!

Ham Radio Mesh Networks

Imagine creating your own mini-internet using radio waves. That's what mesh networking is all about. Hams are setting up networks of nodes that can pass data between them, creating a robust, decentralized communication system. It's a wide area wireless network that doesn't go down when your ISP does!

APRS (Automatic Packet Reporting System)

We talked about this a bit in Section 3.6 – think of APRS as social media for your radio! It lets you transmit your position, weather data, and short messages over ham radio. Imagine a real-time map showing where hams are operating, complete with status updates and local information. It's especially useful during public service events or emergencies, allowing coordinators to see where their operators are at a glance.

SOTA (Summits On The Air) and POTA (Parks On The Air)

How about combining radio with the great outdoors? These activities challenge you to make contacts from mountaintops or state/national parks. It's a perfect blend of hiking and radio. Nothing beats the thrill of making a contact from a remote peak using a radio and antenna you carried up yourself!

Software-Defined Radio (SDR)

For the tech-savvy hams, SDR turns your computer into a powerful radio receiver (and sometimes transmitter). With SDR, you can decode digital signals, track aircraft, listen to satellites, and even receive images from weather satellites. It's like having a super-radio that can do almost anything!

EME (Earth-Moon-Earth) Communications

Love space? Try EME, also known as moonbounce. Yes, you can literally bounce radio signals off the moon to communicate with other hams. It's challenging and requires some serious equipment, but how cool is it to use the moon as a giant radio reflector?

DIY Projects

For the builders and tinkerers, there's a whole world of DIY projects. From constructing your own antennas to building QRP (low power) transceivers, the possibilities are endless. It's like adult LEGO, but with the satisfaction of making contacts on gear you built yourself!

Digital Modes

While not exactly new, modes like FT8 are revolutionizing how we make contacts. Using these modes, you can communicate around the world with very low power and compromised antennas. It's like having a superpower that lets you whisper across continents!

So much more!

Remember, these are just a few examples of the amazing things you can do with ham radio. The hobby is constantly evolving, with hams finding new and innovative ways to use radio technology. Whether you're into high-tech experimentation or good old-fashioned conversation, there's always something new to try.

So don't be afraid to explore, experiment, and push the boundaries of what's possible with your license. Who knows? You might just pioneer the next big thing in ham radio. Now get out there and make some radio magic happen!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T8C01:Which of the following methods is used to locate sources of noise interference or jamming?

Radio direction finding

T8C02:Which of these items would be useful for a hidden transmitter hunt?

A directional antenna

T8C03:What operating activity involves contacting as many stations as possible during a specified period?

Contesting

T8C04:Which of the following is good procedure when contacting another station in a contest?

Send only the minimum information needed for proper identification and the contest exchange

T8C05:What is a grid locator?

A letter-number designator assigned to a geographic location

Chapter 8: Rules and Regulations

Welcome to your Amateur Radio rulebook! While it might not sound as exciting as making DX contacts or experimenting with antennas, understanding the rules and regulations is crucial for being a responsible and legal operator – not to mention avoiding ticking off more experienced hams!

In this chapter, we'll navigate the world of FCC regulations that govern amateur radio in the United States. We'll start by explaining the structure of amateur radio licensing, including the different license classes and the privileges they offer.

You'll learn about frequency allocations - which parts of the radio spectrum are available for amateur use and what you're allowed to do in each band. We'll cover important concepts like primary and secondary allocations, and how to share bands with other services.

We'll get into the nitty-gritty of station identification, teaching you when and how to properly identify your station. You'll learn about authorized and prohibited transmissions, ensuring you stay on the right side of the law while on the air.

We'll also cover important topics like emergency communications protocols, third-party traffic rules, and international regulations that affect amateur radio.

Remember, these rules aren't just bureaucratic red tape - they're designed to ensure fair and efficient use of the radio spectrum, promote international goodwill, and maintain the integrity of amateur radio as a service.

By the end of this chapter, you'll have a clear understanding of your rights and responsibilities as an amateur radio operator. You'll be prepared to operate legally and ethically, upholding the proud traditions of the amateur radio service.

When it comes to operating an Amateur Radio station, the FCC rules always apply – when there are exceptions, like for an emergency, that exception is written into the rules so they still apply!

With that in mind, let’s discuss the rules and ensure your amateur radio adventure stays on the right frequency!

Section 8.1: Operator Classes, Privileges, and Call Signs

Welcome to the world of ham radio hierarchy! Let's break down the different operator classes, what they can do, and how to recognize them by their call signs.

The Purpose of Amateur Radio

As we discussed in "About Amateur Radio" at the beginning of the book, amateur radio was established with specific purposes that guide our activities and privileges.

Key Information: The FCC regulates and enforces the rules for the Amateur Radio Service in the United States. The basis and purpose of the Amateur Radio Service includes advancing skills in both the technical and communication phases of radio.

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates and enforces the rules for the Amateur Radio service in the United States. Amateur radio was established with specific purposes that form the basis of our hobby and service:

Advancing skills in both the technical and communication aspects of radio.

Expanding the pool of trained operators, technicians, and electronic experts.

Enhancing international goodwill through global communications.

Providing a voluntary noncommercial communication service to the public, especially in times of emergency.

Contributing to the advancement of the radio art.

These purposes highlight the multifaceted nature of amateur radio - it's not just a hobby, but a service with important technical, social, and public safety roles. As you progress in amateur radio, you'll find opportunities to fulfill each of these purposes. To support these purposes, the FCC grants different levels of licenses, each with increasing privileges.

Operator Classes and Privileges

Key Information: New licenses are currently available from the FCC for three classes: Technician, General, and Amateur Extra.

The FCC currently issues three classes of amateur radio licenses:

Technician Class:

Entry-level license

Full privileges on all amateur bands above 50 MHz

Limited HF privileges (as discussed later in Section 8.3)

Great for local communications and experimentation with VHF/UHF

General Class:

Second level of licensing

All Technician privileges, plus extensive phone, digital, and CW privileges on HF bands

Opens up the world of global communication

Can get accredited as a Volunteer Examiner to administer exams to new Technician class operators

Amateur Extra Class:

Highest level of licensing

All amateur privileges on all bands

Access to exclusive Extra-only sections of bands

Can get accredited as a Volunteer Examiner to administer exams for new and upgrading operators of any license class

You may come across other license classes besides these; that's because the rules have changed over the years and the Novice, Technician Plus, and Advanced licenses are no longer issued to new licensees. There are still people out there who hold Novice or Advanced licenses but that's a topic outside of the scope of this book.

Key Information: Each person may hold only one operator/primary station license grant. This means you'll have just one call sign, even if you have multiple radios or operating locations.

License Verification

Key Information: The appearance of a license in the FCC ULS database proves that the FCC has issued an operator/primary license grant.

How do you know if someone (including yourself) is officially licensed? The proof is in the database! The appearance of your license grant in the FCC's Universal Licensing System (ULS) database is what officially proves you've been licensed - not a paper certificate or an email confirmation.

Email Requirements

Key Information: If the FCC is unable to reach you by email, they may revoke your station license or suspend your operator license. Failure to provide and maintain a correct email address with the FCC can result in license revocation or suspension.

Here's something critically important: You must provide and maintain a correct email address with the FCC. If they can't reach you by email, they can suspend or revoke your license. Make sure your email address stays current in the FCC database – it's a requirement, not just a suggestion!

Call Signs

In the US, call signs are structured as follows: [Prefix][Number][Suffix]

Key Information: All Technician call signs will be either 2x3 or 1x3, from groups C or D (described below), such as KF1XXX or K1XXX. A Technician class operator cannot be assigned a 1x2 or 2x1 (such as W1XX or KA1X).

There are four "groups" that call signs are assigned from.

Call Sign Groups:

Group A - Amateur Extra Class

Prefix: K, N, W, or AA-AL

Suffix: 1 or 2 letters

Examples: K1A, N1AA, W1A, AA4BC, AL9BB

Special event call signs: The 1x1 format call signs, like K1A, are only used for special event stations and are only assigned for a limited time. You may hear them, but one will never be assigned to an individual.

Group B - Advanced Class

Prnefix: Two letters starting with K, N, or W

Suffix: 2 letters

Examples: KA1AA, WB2BB, NT3ST

Group C - General, Technician, and Technician Plus Classes

Prefix: K, N, or W

Suffix: 3 letters

Examples: K1AAA, N1XYZ, W3ABC

Group D - Novice, Club, and Military Recreation Stations

Prefix: Two letters starting with K or W

Suffix: 3 letters

Examples: KA2XYZ, WB2ZZZ

You may notice that some of these groups don't line up with the operator classes mentioned above: That's because the rules have changed over the years.

When you earn your first ham radio license you will be issued a sequential call sign based on the region of your mailing address and the group matching your license class. If there are no call signs remaining in that group then you will be assigned a call sign from a later group. For example, if you earn a General license and there are no available group C call signs in your region, you will get a group D call sign.

Vanity Call Signs

Key Information: Any licensed amateur may select a desired call sign under the vanity call sign rules.

Don't like your assigned call sign? Good news! Any licensed amateur can select a desired call sign under the vanity call sign rules. You can apply for a vanity call sign from your group or a lower group (representing a lower class license). There are also some prefixes which are assigned to and reserved for specific geographical regions.

Call Sign Regions

The number in a call sign typically indicates the call sign region. The region you are assigned and whether or not you can be issued a region-restricted vanity call sign depends on the mailing address on your license.

Club Station Licenses

Key Information: A requirement for the issuance of a club station license grant is that the club must have at least four members.

Club station licenses are a special type of amateur radio license granted to a club rather than an individual. Here's what you need to know:

Club Composition: To qualify, a club needs at least four members. It's not a one-person show!

Club Identity: The club must have a name, a document of organization, and management. Think of it as the club’s charter—it lays out who you are, how things are run, and makes everything official.

Primary Purpose: The club's main goal should be all about amateur radio activities. No disguising your book club as a ham radio club!

Trustee: The club must designate one person as the license trustee. This trustee needs to hold an operator/primary station license grant. They're like the team captain for your radio club.

Callsign: The club gets its own unique callsign, separate from any individual member's callsign.

Remember, when operating a club station, you use the club's callsign, not your personal one. It's all about team spirit in the radio waves!

Your Radio Identity

Your call sign is your on-air identity. Use it proudly and clearly, following proper identification procedures we'll discuss in later sections.

As you progress through the license classes, you'll gain more privileges and potentially shorter call signs. But remember, every ham, regardless of class, is an important part of our community. Whether you're a newly minted Technician or a seasoned Extra, there's always something new to learn and explore in amateur radio!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T1A02:Which agency regulates and enforces the rules for the Amateur Radio Service in the United States?

The FCC

T1A01:Which of the following is part of the Basis and Purpose of the Amateur Radio Service?

Advancing skills in the technical and communication phases of the radio art

T1C01:For which license classes are new licenses currently available from the FCC?

Technician, General, Amateur Extra

T1A04:How many operator/primary station license grants may be held by any one person?

One

T1A05:What proves that the FCC has issued an operator/primary license grant?

The license appears in the FCC ULS database

T1C04:What may happen if the FCC is unable to reach you by email?

Revocation of the station license or suspension of the operator license

T1C07:Which of the following can result in revocation of the station license or suspension of the operator license?

Failure to provide and maintain a correct email address with the FCC

T1C05:Which of the following is a valid Technician class call sign format?

KF1XXX

T1C02:Who may select a desired call sign under the vanity call sign rules?

Any licensed amateur

T1F11:Which of the following is a requirement for the issuance of a club station license grant?

The club must have at least four members

Section 8.2: ITU Regions

What are ITU Regions?

Welcome to the world of international radio regulations! Let's talk about ITU Regions—the global system that helps keep our airwaves organized.

Imagine if every country had completely different rules for radio use. It would be chaos! That's where the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) comes in. The ITU is a specialized agency of the United Nations that coordinates global telecommunications and radio spectrum usage.

The Three ITU Regions

To manage the radio spectrum effectively, the ITU has divided the world into three regions:

Region 1: Europe, Africa, the Middle East west of the Persian Gulf, the former Soviet Union, and Mongolia.

Region 2: The Americas, Greenland, and some eastern Pacific Islands.

Region 3: Most of Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and most of the Pacific.

Why Do ITU Regions Matter?

As a ham in the United States, you're in Region 2. But why does this matter to you?

These regions can have different frequency allocations for amateur radio bands. For example, in Region 2, we have a 6-meter band from 50-54 MHz. But in Region 1, it's only 50-52 MHz. So if you're planning a DX (long distance) contact or traveling abroad with your radio, you need to be aware of these differences.

Fun Fact: Zigzagging Boundaries

Here’s a fun fact: The region boundaries follow lines of longitude, but they're not always straight. They zigzag a bit to keep certain countries or areas in the same region. It's like a global game of radio Tetris!

Key Points for the Exam

For the exam, remember:

The United States is in ITU Region 2.

Different regions can have different frequency allocations for the same band.

These regions help coordinate international radio use and prevent interference.

This is more than just the United States

Understanding ITU Regions is your first step into the world of international radio regulations. It's a reminder that amateur radio is truly a global hobby, connecting us across borders and oceans. So next time you're on the air, remember—you're not just a U.S. ham, you're part of a worldwide community of radio enthusiasts, all playing by (mostly) the same rulebook!

Keep this international perspective in mind as we get deeper into the rules and regulations that govern our exciting hobby. Up next, we'll explore the specific frequencies you're allowed to use as a Technician class operator. Stay tuned!

Section 8.3: Authorized Frequencies

Welcome to your radio playground, new Technicians! Let's explore the frequencies you're allowed to use. As a Technician class operator, you've got a wide range of frequencies at your disposal, from HF all the way up to microwaves.

Most of this section involves memorization for the exam. Don't worry about committing every frequency to memory - focus on understanding the concepts and memorizing the specific points that appear in the test questions. For everyday operating, most hams keep reference charts handy or look up the information when they need it. Review the questions for this chapter to see what specific facts you need to know for the exam.

Tip: Many frequency-related questions on the exam can be solved using the wavelength equation we introduced in section 3.1 –  Wavelength=300Frequency in MHz\text{Wavelength} = \frac{300}{\text{Frequency in MHz}} \text{Wavelength}%20=%20\frac{300}{\text{Frequency%20in%20MHz}} . Often the correct answer is the only option that falls within the specified band!

Now, let's break it down:

Key Information: Technician class operators have phone privileges on the 10 meter band only (28.300-28.500 MHz) among all HF bands. On VHF/UHF bands, SSB phone may be used in at least some segment of all amateur bands above 50 MHz.

HF (High Frequency) Privileges

80 meters: CW only on 3.525 - 3.600 MHz

40 meters: CW only on 7.025 - 7.125 MHz

15 meters: CW only on 21.025 - 21.200 MHz

10 meters:

CW, RTTY, and Data: 28.000 - 28.300 MHz

Phone (SSB) and CW: 28.300 - 28.500 MHz

Key Information: The maximum peak envelope power output for Technician class operators in their HF band segments is 200 watts.

VHF (Very High Frequency)

6 meters: 50 - 54 MHz

50.0 - 50.1MHz: CW only

50.1 - 54: All modes including voice

2 meters: 144 - 148 MHz

144.0 - 144.1 MHz: CW only

144.1 - 148 MHz: All modes including voice

1.25 meters:

219 - 220 MHz: Fixed digital message forwarding only

222 - 225 MHz: All modes including voice

Key Information: 52.525 MHz is in the 6 meter amateur band and 146.52 MHz is in the 2 meter amateur band . 50.0 MHz to 50.1 MHz and 144.0 MHz to 144.1 MHz are limited to CW only.

UHF (Ultra High Frequency)

70 centimeters: 420 - 450 MHz

Microwave Bands

Various bands above 902 MHz

Key Information: The maximum peak envelope power output for Technician class operators using frequencies above 30 MHz is 1500 watts.

Remember, "CW" (short for "Continuous Wave") refers to Morse code, "Phone" means voice transmissions, and "Data" covers digital modes.

Band Designations

Amateur radio bands are often referred to by their approximate wavelength rather than their frequency range. Remember from Section 3.1 that wavelength and frequency are inversely related - as frequency increases, wavelength decreases.

Key Information: Amateur radio bands are identified by their approximate wavelength in meters . For example, 52.525 MHz is in the 6 meter amateur band* and 146.52 MHz is in the 2 meter amateur band*.

This naming convention is why you'll hear references to the "2-meter band" (144-148 MHz), the "70-centimeter band" (420-450 MHz), or the "10-meter band" (28-29.7 MHz). If you need a refresher on calculating wavelengths, refer back to Section 3.1 where we covered the wavelength formula and examples in detail.

This naming system gives us a quick way to approximate the size of antennas needed for these bands, since antenna elements are often designed as fractions (like 1/4 or 1/2) of the wavelength. It's also part of the rich tradition and language of amateur radio that connects us to generations of operators who came before us.

Special Note on the 1.25 Meter Band

The 1.25 meter band (220-225 MHz) has a unique allocation. Amateurs may use the 219 to 220 MHz segment of the 1.25 meter band only for fixed digital message forwarding systems . There's then a gap from 220-222 MHz that we aren't allowed to use (there was a time in the past when we could). The rest of the band, from 222-225 MHz, is available for general use. It's like a highway with a special lane for digital traffic and a wider lane for everything else!

Power Limits for Technician Class Operators

Now that we've covered where you can transmit, let's talk about how much power you can use. As a Technician, you've got some hefty power limits to work with:

HF Bands: On the HF bands where you have privileges (remember those 80, 40, 15, and 10 meter segments we talked about?), you're allowed a maximum peak envelope power (PEP) output of 200 watts. If that doesn't seem like a lot consider that most typical HF radios have a maximum output power of 100 watts or less.

VHF and Above: For frequencies at 50 MHz and above (that's your 6 meter, 2 meter, 70 cm bands, and beyond), you've got even more power at your disposal. The general limit is 1500 watts PEP output. To say that this is excessive for most purposes would be a tiny bit of an understatement – the typical VHF/UHF radio has a max power output of 50 watts and that's usually plenty.

Now, before you get too excited about cranking up the power, remember a few things:

Just because you can use that much power doesn't mean you always should. Good operators use the minimum power necessary to make the contact. It's like using an "indoor voice" - you don't shout when a normal conversation will do.

Some modes, specific segments, and even geographical areas might have lower power limits. Always check the current band plan and regulations!

With great power comes great responsibility. Higher power means more potential for interference with neighbors' electronics and more safety considerations in your shack.

Your antenna system plays a huge role in how effective your signal is. A good antenna with lower power often outperforms a poor antenna with high power. Additionally, using too much power can damage most antennas and feedlines!

Remember, as a Technician, you're learning the ropes of ham radio. Start with lower power, learn good operating practices, and work your way up as you gain experience. It's not about how much power you can pump out - it's about how effectively you can communicate!

Listening Privileges

While your license governs where you can transmit, you’re free to listen on any amateur radio frequency. In fact, many hams enjoy tuning around and listening to activity on bands they can’t yet transmit on.

Be aware that some non-amateur frequencies—like cordless or cellular phone communications—may be illegal to monitor, especially if they’re encrypted or intended to be private. In practice, most of those signals are digital or encrypted and can’t be decoded anyway, but it's good to know.

Operating Near Band Edges

Key Information: You should not set your transmit frequency to be exactly at the edge of an amateur band or sub-band to allow for calibration error, modulation sidebands, and frequency drift.

Here's a pro tip that might save you from an FCC warning: Be careful about operating right at the edge of a band or sub-band. It's like walking a tightrope over a pool of regulatory sharks - one small misstep and you could find yourself in dangerous waters. Here's why you should give yourself a little buffer:

Frequency Accuracy: Your radio's frequency display might not be 100% accurate. Even a small error could put you out of bounds.

Modulation Sidebands: When you transmit, your signal takes up more space than just the frequency you're tuned to. The sidebands of your transmission could spill over into unauthorized frequencies if you're too close to the edge.

Frequency Drift: Some radios, especially if they're not warmed up, might drift slightly in frequency as you operate.

For these reasons, it's good practice to stay a little bit inside the band edges when you transmit, giving yourself a safety margin. Most experienced hams try to stay at least a few kHz inside the band, just to be on the safe side.

It's always better to err on the side of caution and keep your signals well within the authorized limits. That way, you can focus on enjoying your contacts without worrying about accidentally straying out of bounds!

Happy frequency hopping, and may your signals always find their mark!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T1B06:On which HF bands does a Technician class operator have phone privileges?

10 meter band only

T1B10:Where may SSB phone be used in amateur bands above 50 MHz?

In at least some segment of all these bands

T1B11:What is the maximum peak envelope power output for Technician class operators in their HF band segments?

200 watts

T1B03:Which frequency is in the 6 meter amateur band?

52.525 MHz

T1B04:Which amateur band includes 146.52 MHz?

2 meters

T1B07:Which of the following VHF/UHF band segments are limited to CW only?

50.0 MHz to 50.1 MHz and 144.0 MHz to 144.1 MHz

T1B12:Except for some specific restrictions, what is the maximum peak envelope power output for Technician class operators using frequencies above 30 MHz?

1500 watts

T1B01:Which of the following frequency ranges are available for phone operation by Technician licensees?

28.300 MHz to 28.500 MHz

T1B05:How may amateurs use the 219 to 220 MHz segment of 1.25 meter band?

Fixed digital message forwarding systems only

T1B09:Why should you not set your transmit frequency to be exactly at the edge of an amateur band or sub-band?

A:

To allow for calibration error in the transmitter frequency display

B:

So that modulation sidebands do not extend beyond the band edge

C:

To allow for transmitter frequency drift

All these choices are correct

Section 8.4: Frequency Allocations and Band Sharing

Now that we've covered the specific frequencies available to Technician class operators, let's zoom out and look at the bigger picture of how the radio spectrum is allocated and shared. It's like figuring out where your favorite hangout spots are in a big, busy city – and how to share them with others!

Spectrum Management

The radio spectrum is a finite resource, and just like seating in a packed theater, it needs to be managed carefully. In the U.S., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) plays the role of the usher, deciding who sits where. They divide up the spectrum among various services – not just amateur radio, but also broadcasting, cellular communications, and many other services that use the airwaves.

Primary vs. Secondary Allocations

Key Information: In segments of bands where the Amateur Radio Service is secondary, U.S. amateurs may find non-amateur stations in those segments, and must avoid interfering with them.

Not all spectrum allocations are created equal! There are two main types of allocations:

Primary: If you're on a primary allocation, you've got a reserved seat — like having a confirmed airline ticket. You have priority, and others are expected not to interfere with your operations.

Secondary: If you're on a secondary allocation, you're flying standby. You can use the frequency when it’s available, but if the primary users show up, you need to step aside. Even if their presence causes interference to your signal, they still have the right to be there — you're the one who has to work around them.

As an amateur operator, you'll find yourself in both situations. For example, on the 70 cm band (420–450 MHz), amateur radio is secondary to government radiolocation services in some areas. That means if Uncle Sam needs the airwaves, we step aside.

On the other hand, there are bands where amateurs have primary status. A great example is the 2.4 GHz band, specifically around 2400–2450 MHz, which overlaps with Wi-Fi channel 1. In this portion of the spectrum, amateur radio has primary allocation, while Wi-Fi devices operate on a secondary basis. That means if there's interference between an amateur station and Wi-Fi devices on that frequency, the amateur station has legal priority – though it's quite likely your neighbor won't be aware of that, so the practical usefulness is questionable.

Band Plans

Key Information: A band plan, beyond the privileges established by the FCC, is a voluntary guideline for using different modes or activities within an amateur band.

Within our own little slice of the spectrum pie, the amateur communities develop voluntary band plans. Think of these like neighborhood guidelines – they're not laws, but everyone tries to follow them because it makes things run smoother for everyone.

These band plans suggest which types of operations should happen in different parts of our bands. For example, they might designate certain segments for digital modes, others for SSB voice, and still others for CW. They also identify calling frequencies where operators gather to make initial contacts, and specify common repeater frequency pairs.

Different modes of communication require different amounts of bandwidth - from narrow CW signals (around 150 Hz) to wider FM voice transmissions (about 16 kHz). Band plans help accommodate these different needs and help prevent signals from accidentally extending beyond band edges.

Frequency Coordinators

Key Information: A Volunteer Frequency Coordinator recognized by local amateurs recommends transmit/receive channels and other parameters for auxiliary and repeater stations.

Amateur operators in a local or regional area whose stations are eligible to be repeater or auxiliary stations select the Frequency Coordinator.

Speaking of sharing, when it comes to repeaters, Frequency Coordinators are the heroes that keep everything in order. These volunteers are like the neighborhood watch of the airwaves. They help manage the use of repeater frequencies to minimize interference and make the most out of the spectrum.

Frequency Coordinators aren't appointed by the FCC or any government agency. Instead, they're selected by amateur operators in a local or regional area whose stations are eligible to be repeater or auxiliary stations. This grassroots approach ensures that coordinators understand local needs and conditions.

The recommendations from frequency coordinators aren't legally binding, but following them is considered good amateur practice. Most repeater operators work with their local coordinator to ensure their station fits well into the existing repeater network.

Remember that frequency allocations can vary between ITU regions, so always check local regulations if operating internationally.

Simplex Channels in the VHF/UHF Band Plans

Key Information: Simplex channels are designated in the VHF/UHF band plans so stations within range of each other can communicate without tying up a repeater.

Ever wondered why there are designated simplex channels in the VHF and UHF band plans? Simplex channels are like the direct communication lanes in our radio world. They allow stations within range of each other to communicate without tying up a repeater. This is super useful during local events or in situations where repeaters are busy or unavailable. So, next time you want to chat with a nearby ham without hogging the repeater, give a simplex channel a try!

On a related note, it's tempting to just pick an arbitrary frequency and start operating, but always check the local band plan first – you might be on the input to a repeater and not know it, resulting in everyone else listening to your traffic (and likely angry that you are tying up the repeater).

Interference and Resolution

Key Information: When two stations transmitting on the same frequency interfere with each other, the stations should negotiate continued use of the frequency.

Sometimes, two amateur radio stations might end up transmitting on the same frequency, leading to interference. It's like when two people start talking at the same time in a crowded room. So, what's the right move?

According to the FCC's rules (and a good dose of common courtesy), both stations have equal rights to the frequency. This means that rather than one station automatically backing off, the best approach is for the two stations to negotiate continued use of the frequency. Communication is key – discuss who will stay on the frequency or if one of you will move to another spot on the band.

On a more serious note, willful interference (deliberately causing interference to another station) is prohibited and can result in penalties from the FCC. If you encounter this situation, document it and report it through proper channels rather than engaging with the interfering station. Our goal as amateur operators is to keep the airwaves friendly, cooperative, and enjoyable for everyone.

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T1B08:How are US amateurs restricted in segments of bands where the Amateur Radio Service is secondary?

U.S. amateurs may find non-amateur stations in those segments, and must avoid interfering with them

T2A10:What is a band plan, beyond the privileges established by the FCC?

A voluntary guideline for using different modes or activities within an amateur band

T1A08:Which of the following entities recommends transmit/receive channels and other parameters for auxiliary and repeater stations?

Volunteer Frequency Coordinator recognized by local amateurs

T1A09:Who selects a Frequency Coordinator?

Amateur operators in a local or regional area whose stations are eligible to be repeater or auxiliary stations

T2B09:Why are simplex channels designated in the VHF/UHF band plans?

So stations within range of each other can communicate without tying up a repeater

T2B08:Which of the following applies when two stations transmitting on the same frequency interfere with each other?

The stations should negotiate continued use of the frequency

Section 8.5: Station Identification

Alright, fellow hams, let's talk about one of the most fundamental rules in amateur radio: station identification. It's like signing your name, but over the airwaves!

When to Identify

Key Information: You are required to transmit your assigned call sign at least every 10 minutes during and at the end of a communication.

The FCC requires you to identify your station in two key situations:

At least every 10 minutes during a contact

At the end of each communication

Remember: "Ten and End" - identify at least every ten minutes and at the end.

Key Information: When making on-the-air test transmissions, you must identify the transmitting station.

Even for short test transmissions, you must identify your station with your call sign. There's no "just testing" exception to the identification rules!

How to Identify

Key Information: English is the required language for identification when operating phone in the Amateur Radio Service.

The method of call sign identification for a phone transmission is to use a CW or phone emission.

Your station identification must include your FCC-assigned call sign. Here are some key points:

Language: You must identify in English. However, you can also add identifications in other languages if you wish.

Voice Identification: You can identify using either CW or phone emission when operating on phone. For example: "This is KA1ABC" or "KA1ABC clear."

CW and Digital Modes: Transmit your call sign using the mode you're operating in.

Phonetics: While not required, the FCC encourages the use of a phonetic alphabet for station identification when operating phone modes. This practice helps ensure clear and accurate communication of call signs, especially in challenging conditions. For example: "Kilo Alpha One Alpha Bravo Charlie." instead of "KA1ABC". It's best to use a standard alphabet rather than making one up so as to prevent confusion.

Self-Assigned Indicators:

Key Information: All of these choices are acceptable when using a phone transmission: KL7CC stroke W3, KL7CC slant W3, or KL7CC slash W3.

Want to add a little flair to your call sign? You can use self-assigned indicators! These are like radio bumper stickers that tell others something special about your operation. Add them before or after your call sign (or both!), separated by a slash (/), the word "stroke," "slant," or "slash." For example, "KA1ABC/MOB" might be used to let folks know you're on the move. "W1AW/70" might indicate you're celebrating a 70th anniversary. Just remember, your indicator can't clash with any FCC-specified indicators or country prefixes.

Special Situations

Club Stations: Use the club's call sign, not your personal one.

Special Event Stations: Use the special event call sign if one has been issued.

Remote Operation: Additional identification rules may apply. Check current FCC regulations.

Using Tactical Call Signs

Key Information: When using tactical call signs such as "Race Headquarters," you must identify with your FCC-assigned call sign at the end of each communication and every ten minutes during a communication.

As much as we all love our call signs (if you don't, you will!) there are times when it's not super convenient to keep track of them when working with a group. Imagine you are helping with a large event – perhaps a parade in a mid-sized city. Let's say we need someone at each of these stations:

Parade headquarters – someone to coordinate with the officials in charge of the parade and relay information as needed

1st Street

2nd Street

...

Staging – the beginning of the parade where floats prepare to start the parade

Net Control – the person coordinating all the operators so they don't all talk over each other

Now, imagine that for some reason the parade is going to last for a long time and so you have people changing out in shifts; when you need to know what is going on at 3rd street you don't really care who the operator there is, you just need to talk to someone at that location.

Fortunately, Part 97 doesn't require that you identify the person you are calling by their real call sign! It only requires that you identify yourself – and thus the purpose of a tactical call sign!

What are tactical call signs? Tactical call signs are short, descriptive names used to identify a station's function or location during an event. You might then have a conversation like this one:

"1st street, this is Net Control"

"Net control from 1st street, go ahead!"

"Can you see the parade float with the giant bologna sandwich?"

"Affirmative net control, they are passing my location now"

"Thank you. I'll send someone to return their cooler of pastrami – it fell off a block back and they didn't notice"

"Copy that. 1st street, KF1AZT clear"

"Net control, NT3ST clear"

Notice a few things in this contrived example:

It is easy for everyone to follow who is talking and what is going on – even if they don't know where KF1AZT is. If they had used call signs instead it would have been much harder to keep track of that.

The rules don't require that you identify yourself every transmission, just once every 10 minutes and at the end – so you need to sign off with your call sign but you can respond with the tactical call sign.

The specifics of when and how you identify with your real call sign don't matter as long as you follow those two rules.

Remember, tactical call signs are the cherry on top of your communication sundae, not a replacement for your official FCC call sign. Use them wisely, and you'll be the communication superhero your event needs!

Exceptions to Identification Requirements

Key Information: When transmitting signals to control model craft, amateur stations are not required to identify on the air.

While station identification is generally required, there are a few specific situations where an amateur station may transmit without identifying on the air:

Transmissions to control model craft: When using radio control for telecommand you are not required to identify in the regular ways.

telecommand: A one‐way transmission to initiate, modify, or terminate functions of a device at a distance.

Transmissions from a space station: Space stations operating under automatic control may have different identification requirements. There are special licensing requirements for putting up a space station. You mostly just need to know that it's on the list of exceptions!

Remember, these exceptions are limited. In most cases, proper identification is still required.

Tips and Tricks

Set a 10-minute timer during long QSOs to remind you to identify.

While not required, many hams choose to identify at the beginning of a contact as a courtesy. This is perfectly fine and usually a good idea, just not mandated by FCC rules.

Whenever you call someone on the air always say their call sign first – and possibly more than once. That's because not everyone is listening all the time, but most of us get used to listening for our call sign. We'll start listening when we notice our call sign but may not have noticed what you said before. If you identify yourself after the person you are calling then they are more likely to know who they should respond to.

Pro Tip

Practice saying your call sign clearly and confidently. It's your radio identity, wear it with pride!

Remember, proper identification is not just a legal requirement; it's a courtesy to other operators. It helps everyone know who they're talking to and avoids confusion on the bands. By following these identification rules, you're not just complying with FCC regulations; you're participating in the long-standing traditions of amateur radio. So get out there, key up that mic, and let the world know who you are - every 10 minutes and at the end of your QSO!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T1F03:When are you required to transmit your assigned call sign?

At least every 10 minutes during and at the end of a communication

T2A06:Which of the following is required when making on-the-air test transmissions?

Identify the transmitting station

T1F04:What language may you use for identification when operating in a phone sub-band?

English

T1F05:What method of call sign identification is required for a station transmitting phone signals?

Send the call sign using a CW or phone emission

T1A03:What do the FCC rules state regarding the use of a phonetic alphabet for station identification in the Amateur Radio Service?

It is encouraged

T1F06:Which of the following self-assigned indicators are acceptable when using a phone transmission?

A:

KL7CC stroke W3

B:

KL7CC slant W3

C:

KL7CC slash W3

All these choices are correct

T1F02:How often must you identify with your FCC-assigned call sign when using tactical call signs such as “Race Headquarters”?

At the end of each communication and every ten minutes during a communication

T1D11:When may an amateur station transmit without identifying on the air?

When transmitting signals to control model craft

Section 8.6: Authorized and Prohibited Transmissions

Welcome to the "do's and don'ts" of amateur radio! Understanding what you can and can't transmit is crucial for operating legally and ethically. Let's break it down:

Authorized Transmissions

Key Information: Transmissions to a different country are limited to communications incidental to the purposes of the Amateur Radio Service and to remarks of a personal character.

Non-Commercial Communication: Amateur radio is for personal use and self-training, not for business.

Key Information: The control operator of an amateur station may receive compensation for operating that station when the communication is incidental to classroom instruction at an educational institution.

Here's a tricky one: Can you ever get paid for being a ham? The short answer is usually 'no' - after all, we're in this for the love of radio, not the money. But there's one situation where the FCC says it's okay to get compensated. If you're helping out during an emergency or an emergency drill, and it's related to your day job, you can get paid for your time. Just remember, the radio part needs to be a small piece of what you're doing, not the main event.

Emergency Communications:

Key Information: Amateur stations may transmit information in support of broadcasting, program production, or news gathering when such communications are directly related to the immediate safety of human life or protection of property.

In a real emergency, the usual rules take a backseat—you’re allowed to use any communication method necessary to get help! It's like having a "break glass in case of emergency" option for the rulebook, but remember that you may be called on to justify your decision, so make sure it was an actual emergency and that was the only way to solve it!

Part 97.403 Specifies:

No provision of these rules prevents the use by an amateur station of any means of radiocommunication at its disposal to provide essential communication needs in connection with the immediate safety of human life and immediate protection of property when normal communication systems are not available.

Ham Radio Show-and-Tell:

Spread the word about cool ham radio stuff

Practice for when the zombies come (aka disaster prep)

Take your station for a test drive

Warm up for public service events

One-Way Traffic (Sometimes):

Morse code practice

Beacon stations for propagation studies

Control signals for amateur radio satellites

Quick "Hello, Can You Hear Me?" Tests:

Signal reports (aka "You sound like you're transmitting from inside a tin can")

Equipment tests (make sure your fancy new radio actually works)

Going International:

Key Information: FCC-licensed amateur radio stations are prohibited from exchanging communications with any country whose administration has notified the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) that it objects to such communications.

Time to flex those language skills! You can chat with hams worldwide, but keep it personal or radio-related. It's like having pen pals, but cooler.

There are some countries that you are not allowed to communicate with: We won't be listing them here, because they could change over time, but any country can notify the ITU that they don't want ham radio operators to communicate with their citizens. If that happens? Forbidden.

Key Information: From within any vessel or craft located in international waters and documented or registered in the United States, an FCC-licensed amateur station may transmit.

Here's a fun fact: You can transmit from a boat in international waters, as long as you stick to frequency bands allocated internationally in each of the three ITU regions. If you are in territorial waters of another country then you need to know and follow their rules.

Third-Party Communications: Playing Telephone (Literally)

Key Information: Third party communications are messages from a control operator (first party) of an amateur station to another amateur station control operator (second party) on behalf of another person (third party).

Ever wanted to let your non-ham friend use your radio? That – as well as passing messages on their behalf – counts as a third-party communication, and it comes with some rules:

What's the Deal?: Third-party communication is when you're the middleman, passing a message from a non-ham to another station. It's like being a radio relay for your friends. Additionally Part 97 allows that person to participate, as long as the control operator is at the control point.

Domestic Third-Party Traffic: Within the U.S., it's generally a free-for-all. Let your friends and family experience the magic of ham radio! (subject to the restrictions mentioned below)

International Third-Party Traffic:

Key Information: When a non-licensed person is allowed to speak to a foreign station using a station under the control of a licensed amateur operator, the foreign station must be in a country with which the U.S. has a third party agreement.

This is where it gets tricky. Both countries need to have a "handshake agreement" allowing it. It's like needing parental permission for an international field trip. No third-party agreement? No talking to that foreign station! (except for emergency or disaster relief communications)

Part 97 specifies that:

Transmissions to a different country, where permitted, shall be limited to communications incidental to the purposes of the amateur service and to remarks of a personal character.

You're the Boss: When letting a non-ham use your station, you need to be the responsible adult in the room. Stay present and keep an ear on what's happening.

Not for Everyone: Some folks aren't allowed to join the third-party party, like those who've had their ham licenses revoked. It's like a "no entry" list for a fancy club.

One-Way Transmissions

Key Information:

One-way transmissions by an amateur station are prohibited when they constitute broadcasting.

Broadcasting for the Amateur Radio Service is defined as transmissions intended for reception by the general public.

While amateur radio is primarily designed for two-way communications, there are specific situations where one-way transmissions are permitted:

Morse Code Practice: Stations may transmit one-way signals for brief periods to provide practice in receiving Morse code.

Beacon Stations: These stations transmit one-way signals to study propagation or for other experimental purposes.

Remote Control: One-way transmissions are allowed for remote control of model craft, such as drones or boats.

Space Telemetry: One-way transmissions from space stations (like satellites) for telemetry purposes are permitted.

Brief Transmissions: Short, one-way transmissions are allowed for station identification, testing equipment, or making adjustments to the station.

Emergency Communications: In cases of immediate safety of life or protection of property, one-way transmissions of any kind may be necessary and allowed. For example, Amateur Radio may be used when no other means is available in support of broadcasting, program production, or news gathering when the safety of human life or protection of property is on the line.

Remember, these are exceptions to the general rule. The primary purpose of amateur radio remains two-way communications. Always ensure your transmissions comply with FCC regulations and the spirit of amateur radio.

Prohibited Transmissions:

Commercial Communications: No using ham radio to conduct business or make money.

Key Information: Amateur radio operators may use their stations to notify other amateurs of the availability of equipment for sale or trade when selling amateur radio equipment and not on a regular basis.

The language used in Part 97 to refer to these prohibited transmissions is:

Communications in which the station licensee or control operator has a pecuniary interest, including communications on behalf of an employer"

There are a few exceptions made in Part 97(a)(3):

You can notify other operators that you have ham radio equipment for sale or trade, so long as it isn't something you do "on a regular basis".

You can be paid when using the radio if you are participating on behalf of an employer in a emergency/disaster preparedness drill and/or testing in preparation for those drills. There are some time limits, so read up on it before you do so.

You can be paid when using a radio as an incidental part of teaching a class

A control operator for a club station can be paid for running the station when doing information bulletins or telegraphy – there are a bunch of weird requirements for this and who does that anyway? But know that it's a Thing and look it up if you need!

Broadcasting: One-way transmissions intended for the general public are not allowed, other than the exceptions mentioned above.

Encrypted Messages:

Key Information: Messages encoded to obscure their meaning may be transmitted when transmitting control commands to space stations or radio control craft.

Transmissions intended to obscure the meaning of the communication are generally prohibited.

Now, you might think that all ham radio messages need to be out in the open for anyone to understand. And generally, you'd be right! But there's a cool exception: You're allowed to send encoded messages when you're controlling space stations or radio-controlled devices such as a plane or FPV drone.

Music Transmission:

Key Information: An amateur station is authorized to transmit music using a phone emission only when incidental to an authorized retransmission of manned spacecraft communications.

Playing music over the air is generally not allowed, except for incidental music rebroadcast from space shuttle communications.

Keep It Family-Friendly:

Key Information: Any language that may be considered indecent or obscene is prohibited in amateur radio communications.

Imagine your grandma is listening - because she might be! No obscene or indecent language allowed. Let's keep it clean, folks.

No False or Fraudulent Signals: False distress calls or pretending to be another station? That's not just against the rules, it's potentially dangerous. Don't do it!

Stay in Your Lane: Retransmitting other radio services (like your local FM station or police scanner) is a big no-no. Stick to amateur radio content.

Check the "Do Not Call" List:
Some countries are off-limits for ham communication—not just because the FCC says so, but because those countries have notified the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) (See Section 8.2) that they don’t allow their citizens to communicate with foreign amateur radio operators.

Play Nice:

Key Information: Willful interference to other amateur radio stations is permitted at no time.

Intentionally interfering with other stations is like stepping on someone's sandcastle. It's not cool, and it's definitely not allowed.

Remember: The essence of ham radio is two-way communication and experimentation. If what you're doing doesn't fall into these categories, it's probably not allowed.

So there you have it, folks - your guide to staying on the right side of the FCC while having a blast on the ham bands. Now go forth and communicate responsibly!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T1C03:What types of international communications are an FCC-licensed amateur radio station permitted to make?

Communications incidental to the purposes of the Amateur Radio Service and remarks of a personal character

T1D08:In which of the following circumstances may the control operator of an amateur station receive compensation for operating that station?

When the communication is incidental to classroom instruction at an educational institution

T1D09:When may amateur stations transmit information in support of broadcasting, program production, or news gathering, assuming no other means is available?

When such communications are directly related to the immediate safety of human life or protection of property

T1D01:With which countries are FCC-licensed amateur radio stations prohibited from exchanging communications?

Any country whose administration has notified the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) that it objects to such communications

T1C06:From which of the following locations may an FCC-licensed amateur station transmit?

From any vessel or craft located in international waters and documented or registered in the United States

T1F08:What is the definition of third party communications?

A message from a control operator to another amateur station control operator on behalf of another person

T1F07:Which of the following restrictions apply when a non-licensed person is allowed to speak to a foreign station using a station under the control of a licensed amateur operator?

The foreign station must be in a country with which the U.S. has a third party agreement

T1D02:Under which of the following circumstances are one-way transmissions by an amateur station prohibited?

Broadcasting

T1D10:How does the FCC define broadcasting for the Amateur Radio Service?

Transmissions intended for reception by the general public

T1D05:When may amateur radio operators use their stations to notify other amateurs of the availability of equipment for sale or trade?

When selling amateur radio equipment and not on a regular basis

T1D03:When is it permissible to transmit messages encoded to obscure their meaning?

Only when transmitting control commands to space stations or radio control craft

T1D04:Under what conditions is an amateur station authorized to transmit music using a phone emission?

When incidental to an authorized retransmission of manned spacecraft communications

T1D06:What, if any, are the restrictions concerning transmission of language that may be considered indecent or obscene?

Any such language is prohibited

T1A11:When is willful interference to other amateur radio stations permitted?

At no time

Section 8.7: Control Operator and Control Types

Let’s take a closer look at control operators and control types—it’s all about who’s responsible for what goes out over the airwaves!

Control Operator

A control operator is an amateur radio operator designated by the station licensee (owner of the station) to be responsible for the transmissions from that station. Here are the key points:

Key Information: The station licensee must designate the station control operator.

The station licensee must designate at least one control operator.

The control operator is responsible for the proper operation of the station.

Key Information: When the control operator is not the station licensee, both the control operator and the station licensee are responsible for the proper operation of the station.

The privileges you can use are determined by your license class, not the station's capabilities:

Key Information: The class of operator license held by the control operator determines the transmitting frequency privileges of an amateur station.

There must always be a control operator.

Key Information: An amateur station may never transmit without a control operator.

Even in the case of automatic control such as a repeater where no control operator is present, there must still be a control operator designated (usually the repeater owner or trustee).

Keep your station records organized and complete:

Key Information: The station and its records must be available for FCC inspection at any time upon request by an FCC representative.

Unless you have documentation specifying otherwise, the FCC assumes you're in charge of your station:

Key Information: The FCC presumes the station licensee to be the control operator of an amateur station, unless documentation to the contrary is in the station records.

Remember: "the buck stops here!" The control operator is responsible for ensuring all transmissions comply with FCC rules.

When operating on different frequency bands, there are important limitations to consider:

Key Information: A Technician class licensee may never be the control operator of a station operating in an Amateur Extra Class band segment.

What about responsibility when using a repeater? Here's an important point:

Key Information: The control operator of the originating station is accountable if a repeater inadvertently retransmits communications that violate the FCC rules.

If a repeater inadvertently retransmits something which violates the FCC rules, the control operator of the station which sent the original transmission is accountable, not the repeater operator.

Types of Control

There are three types of control in amateur radio:

1. Local Control

Key Information: The control point of an amateur station is the location at which the control operator function is performed.

The control point is at the same physical location as the station itself.

This is the most common type for home stations and portable operations.

Example: You're sitting at your home station, operating your radio.

2. Remote Control

Remote control operation is like being a radio wizard - you can control your station from afar! But with great power comes great responsibility.

Key Information: Operating the station over the internet is an example of remote control as defined in Part 97.

The control operator is not at the station location but can still control the transmitter.

Often uses internet or dedicated control links.

Example: Operating your home station from your smartphone while you're at work.

For remote control, the FCC requires specific conditions:

Key Information: The control operator must be at the control point, a control operator is required at all times, and the control operator must indirectly manipulate the controls.

3. Automatic Control

Key Information: Repeater operation is an example of automatic control.

The station operates without a control operator present.

Limited to specific operations like repeaters, beacons, and space stations.

Example: A repeater that operates 24/7 without someone constantly monitoring it.

Automatic Retransmission

Key Information: Repeater, auxiliary, or space stations are the types of amateur stations that can automatically retransmit the signals of other amateur stations.

Some types of amateur stations are permitted to automatically retransmit signals from other stations. This is a key aspect of automatic control that has specific rules:

Repeater Stations: These receive signals on one frequency and simultaneously retransmit them on another, extending the range of communications.

Auxiliary Stations: These can automatically retransmit signals as part of a local network of amateur stations. Part 97 defines an Auxiliary station as:

An amateur station, other than in a message forwarding system, that is transmitting communications point-to-point within a system of cooperating amateur stations.

Space Stations: Satellites and other space-based amateur radio stations can automatically retransmit signals from Earth stations.

Key Points to Control Operators

The control operator is responsible for all transmissions from the station, regardless of who is actually speaking.

If the station licensee and the control operator are not the same individual, both equally share responsibility for proper operation of the station. It's like loaning out your car – careful who you give the keys to, because if there is an accident you both end up paying!

If a station is operating under automatic control, it must cease operation if it causes harmful interference.

For remote and automatic control, the licensee must be able to deactivate the transmitter from a distance if necessary.

If you're operating someone else's station, make sure you know what privileges you're allowed to use. You can only operate within the limits of your license class, even if the station is capable of more.

Understanding control operators and control types is crucial for responsible amateur radio operation. It ensures that someone is always accountable for what's being transmitted, helping to maintain the integrity of our bands. So whether you're at the helm of your own station or operating remotely, remember - you're the captain of your radio ship!

HamStudy phone icon Open in
HamStudy QR Code to study with HamStudy

T1E03:Who must designate the station control operator?

The station licensee

T1E07:When the control operator is not the station licensee, who is responsible for the proper operation of the station?

The control operator and the station licensee

T1E04:What determines the transmitting frequency privileges of an amateur station?

The class of operator license held by the control operator

T1E01:When may an amateur station transmit without a control operator?

Never

T1F01:When must the station and its records be available for FCC inspection?

At any time upon request by an FCC representative

T1E11:Who does the FCC presume to be the control operator of an amateur station, unless documentation to the contrary is in the station records?

The station licensee

T1E06:When, under normal circumstances, may a Technician class licensee be the control operator of a station operating in an Amateur Extra Class band segment?

At no time

T1F10:Who is accountable if a repeater inadvertently retransmits communications that violate the FCC rules?

The control operator of the originating station

T1E05:What is an amateur station’s control point?

The location at which the control operator function is performed

T1E10:Which of the following is an example of remote control as defined in Part 97?

Operating the station over the internet

T1E09:Which of the following are required for remote control operation?

A:

The control operator must be at the control point

B:

A control operator is required at all times

C:

The control operator must indirectly manipulate the controls

All these choices are correct

T1E08:Which of the following is an example of automatic control?

Repeater operation

T1D07:What types of amateur stations can automatically retransmit the signals of other amateur stations?

Repeater, auxiliary, or space stations

Conclusion: Your Journey into Amateur Radio

Congratulations! You've made it through the Technician License HamBook, and what a journey it's been. From the basics of electricity and radio waves to the intricacies of operating procedures and FCC regulations, you've laid a solid foundation for your amateur radio adventure.

Let's take a moment to reflect on what you've learned:

The Science: You've explored the fascinating world of radio waves, antennas, and propagation. You now understand how your voice can travel across town or around the world using the magic of electromagnetic waves.

The Equipment: You've been introduced to transceivers, antennas, and various accessories that make up an amateur radio station. Remember, start simple and expand as you grow in the hobby.

Operating Practices: You've learned how to make contacts, use repeaters, and participate in various modes of communication. These skills will serve you well as you start your on-air adventures.

Rules and Regulations: You now understand the responsibilities that come with your license, from proper station identification to frequency privileges.

The Community: Perhaps most importantly, you've gotten a glimpse into the vibrant, global community of amateur radio operators that you're about to join.

Preparing for Your Technician License Exam

Now that you've gone through the material, it's time to prepare for your exam. Here's how you can use HamStudy.org to effectively prepare:

Study Mode:

This is your primary study tool on HamStudy.

Questions are presented one at a time, with instant feedback.

You can study questions by chapter, mirroring the structure of this book.

Pay attention to your aptitude and confidence scores for each section.

Focus more time on areas where your scores are lower.

Read explanations carefully, even for questions you get right.

Use the "Discuss" feature if you need more clarification on a topic.

Practice Tests:

Take full practice exams regularly once you feel comfortable with most of the material.

Aim for consistently scoring 80% or higher before scheduling your actual exam.

Remember, the passing score is 26 out of 35 questions (about 74%).

Track Your Progress:

HamStudy keeps track of your performance over time.

Review your statistics to see which areas need more attention.

Mobile Study:

Use the HamStudy mobile app to study on the go.

Short, frequent study sessions can be very effective.

Find an Exam Session:

Use the "Find a Session" feature on HamStudy to locate exam opportunities near you.

You can filter for both in-person and online exam sessions.

Prepare for Exam Day:

Ensure you have the necessary identification and payment for the exam.

For online exams, test your equipment beforehand.

Get a good night's sleep before the exam.

Remember, the goal isn't just to memorize answers, but to understand the concepts. The questions you see on the actual exam may be worded differently from what you've studied, so focus on comprehension rather than rote memorization.

Your Next Steps

Passing the exam and getting your license is just the beginning. Here are some next steps to consider:

Get on the air! Don't be shy. Make that first contact and start building your confidence.

Join a local club. The camaraderie and mentorship you'll find there are invaluable.

Participate in events like Field Day to practice your skills and meet other hams.

Consider upgrading to General or Extra class to expand your privileges.

Explore different aspects of the hobby - maybe you'll discover a passion for DXing, contesting, or emergency communications.

As you embark on your amateur radio journey, always remember the core principles of our hobby:

Experimentation and self-training

Non-commercial communication

International goodwill

Public service, especially in times of emergency

You're now part of a tradition that stretches back over a century, one that has played a crucial role in advancing radio technology and serving communities worldwide. Whether you're chatting with a local friend on a repeater, making your first DX contact, or helping out during a disaster, you're carrying on this proud legacy.

So, new ham, welcome to the airwaves! We're excited to have you join us. Keep learning, stay curious, and above all, have fun. The world of amateur radio is vast and varied - there's always something new to discover.

Don't be discouraged if you don't get a perfect score on practice exams. The journey of learning in amateur radio never really ends - passing the exam is just the beginning.

Lastly, don't forget to relax and have confidence in your preparation. You've put in the work, and now it's time to show what you've learned. Good luck, and we look forward to welcoming you to the amateur radio community!

We'll see you on the airwaves. 73!

Appendix: Other resources

These are other resources that you may find useful.

Other books for preparing for your Ham Radio license

No single approach works for everyone when preparing for your Ham Radio license. Our goal is to provide an unbiased review of different options. To achieve this, we've enlisted the help of an AI to offer impartial reviews. Here are some popular study resources, along with ratings and summaries provided by an AI.

The AI was given these prompts:

I need a summary of this book. The audience is someone who wants to get started with ham radio and may not know a lot about it yet. Keep it short (2 or 3 paragraphs) and focus on particular strengths. If there are particular weaknesses you can mention them, but only if they are noteworthy. We will use this to compare different books or resources. There are four types of users who we want to rate it for: Complete Beginners, Technical Enthusiasts, Exam-Focused Learners, and Visual and Hands-On Learners

To rate each resource:

Please rate this book (out of 10) on these five criteria: Content Clarity, Suitability for Exam Preparation, Practical Application, Organization and Structure, and Supplemental Resources. No explanation needed, just a list of items and ratings. Also give a rating out of 10 for how suitable it is for Complete Beginners, Technical Enthusiasts, Exam-Focused Learners, or Visual and Hands-On Learners

PLEASE NOTE: The danger of running this through AI is that I can request ratings 5 times in a row and get slightly different ratings, so use them only as a very general guideline. The AI was given no context for each query, so ratings are not an objective comparison.

We'll start with this book (minus this chapter) because fair is fair!

The HamStudy Technician Class HamBook

Overall Rating: 8.2 / 10

Based on the summary and review provided, here are the ratings for the HamStudy Technician License HamBook on the five criteria requested:

Content Clarity: 9/10

Suitability for Exam Preparation: 9/10

Practical Application: 8/10

Organization and Structure: 8/10

Supplemental Resources: 7/10

Who is it suitable for?

Complete Beginners: 9/10

Technical Enthusiasts: 6/10

Exam-Focused Learners: 9/10

Visual and Hands-On Learners: 8/10

Overall, the book scores highly across all criteria, with particular strengths in content clarity, exam preparation, and supplemental resources.

Summary

The book you've provided, titled HamBook, is an excellent resource for individuals preparing for their Technician Class amateur radio license. Its main strengths lie in its friendly, approachable tone and clear, well-organized content that covers both technical aspects and practical guidance. The book starts by introducing key concepts in amateur radio, including basic electronics, radio wave propagation, and FCC regulations. It emphasizes hands-on learning and safety, which makes it particularly useful for newcomers who may be overwhelmed by technical jargon or complex concepts. The book also highlights the importance of amateur radio in emergencies, which can resonate with those interested in public service.

For Complete Beginners, this book is a perfect starting point. The text simplifies technical terms and breaks down complex topics, making the learning curve less steep. Its conversational style ensures readers don't feel intimidated by the subject matter. The practical tips and encouragement throughout help foster confidence and engagement.

For Technical Enthusiasts, while the book covers a wide range of foundational topics, those seeking in-depth exploration of advanced electronics or cutting-edge technologies may find it somewhat basic. However, the grounding in radio wave theory and antenna principles will provide a solid starting point for further learning.

For Exam-Focused Learners, the book’s alignment with the official question pool is a huge advantage. It integrates practice questions after each section, ensuring that learners can track their progress and target weak areas. This structure will help users stay focused on the key knowledge required to pass the Technician Class exam.

Lastly, Visual and Hands-On Learners will appreciate the straightforward diagrams and the strong emphasis on practical application. The book encourages readers to set up their own equipment and participate in amateur radio activities, which can greatly enhance the learning experience.

Overall, HamBook is a well-rounded resource with a strong focus on accessibility, making it a great choice for most types of learners, especially those new to the hobby. Its primary weakness for more experienced or technically inclined readers is its focus on introductory content.

The Fast Track to Your Technician Class Ham Radio License

Overall Rating: 8.6 / 10

Based on the summary and review, here are ratings for "The Fast Track to Your Technician Class Ham Radio License" on the five criteria:

Content Clarity: 9/10

Suitability for Exam Preparation: 10/10

Practical Application: 7/10

Organization and Structure: 8/10

Supplemental Resources: 9/10

Who is it suitable for?

Complete Beginners: 10/10

Technical Enthusiasts: 7/10

Exam-Focused Learners: 9/10

Visual and Hands-On Learners: 6/10

Overall, these ratings reflect the book's strengths in providing clear, comprehensive preparation for the Technician class license exam, with a good balance of theoretical knowledge and practical application.

Summary

This book, "The Fast Track to Your Technician Class Ham Radio License" by Michael Burnette (AF7KB) and Kerry Burnette (KC7YL), is a comprehensive guide for those looking to obtain their entry-level Technician ham radio license. It covers all the material needed to pass the FCC exam, including radio theory, regulations, operating procedures, and safety. The authors present complex topics in an accessible way, using analogies and real-world examples to make concepts easier to understand.

A key strength of this book is its practical approach. It not only prepares readers for the exam but also provides valuable information on getting started in the hobby after obtaining a license. The authors include tips on choosing equipment, making first contacts, and participating in the ham radio community. The book also features bonus chapters on radio history and advanced topics, giving readers a broader context for the hobby. Overall, this resource stands out for its clear explanations, comprehensive coverage, and focus on practical application of ham radio knowledge.

The ARRL Ham Radio License Manual

Overall Rating: 8.6 / 10

Based on the content and review, here's a rating of the ARRL Ham Radio License Manual on the five criteria you specified:

Content Clarity: 9/10

Suitability for Exam Preparation: 10/10

Practical Application: 7/10

Organization and Structure: 8/10

Supplemental Resources: 9/10

Who is it suitable for?

Complete Beginners: 9/10

Technical Enthusiasts: 7/10

Exam-Focused Learners: 9/10

Visual and Hands-On Learners: 6/10

Summary

The ARRL Ham Radio License Manual, 5th Edition is a comprehensive study guide aimed at helping individuals pass the Technician license exam and get started in ham radio. It’s structured in an accessible way, covering fundamental topics such as radio signals, basic electronics, equipment, regulations, and safety. Its strength lies in breaking down complex subjects into manageable pieces, offering a clear, step-by-step guide to understanding not just the answers to exam questions but also the broader context of amateur radio. The inclusion of the question pool directly in the book is particularly helpful for reinforcing learning through practice.

One key advantage of the manual is its focus on helping users not just pass the test but also become effective operators. It includes advice on assembling a simple station, making first contacts, and understanding the various regulations. The book also comes with practical online resources like practice exams and guides for choosing your first radio. Additionally, it offers clear visual aids and examples that help technical concepts become more digestible, which makes it valuable for both beginners and enthusiasts who need a deeper technical understanding.

For the target groups:

Complete Beginners: Highly suitable, thanks to its structured, approachable format that introduces concepts slowly.

Technical Enthusiasts: It provides a solid technical foundation but may lack depth for those seeking very advanced insights.

Exam-Focused Learners: The integrated question pool and exam tips make it an excellent resource for passing the test.

Visual and Hands-On Learners: The book includes diagrams and examples, but the practical hands-on content is mainly online or in external resources, so learners may need to supplement it.

Gordon West Technician Class Amateur Radio License Preparation 10th Edition 2022-2026

Gordon West is one of the best-known names in amateur radio education, and for good reason! He's been teaching and writing about ham radio for decades and is known for his personable and enthusiastic approach to mentoring new hams. While we couldn't provide a detailed AI review of this book due to format limitations, it's worth noting that Gordon West's materials are highly regarded in the amateur radio community.

This book is absolutely worth consideration if you're looking to go deeper into amateur radio theory and practice. Gordon West's approach often includes mnemonics, memory aids, and real-world examples that many students find helpful in understanding and retaining complex information. If you appreciate a more personal touch in your study materials, this could be an excellent choice for your license preparation.

Gordon's books are supported by the HamStudy mobile app.

Ham Radio School

Another good resource supported by the HamStudy mobile app. is Ham Radio School Technician License Course (2022–2026) by Stu Turner, W0STU. Like Gordon's books I was unable to run it through the AI so I can't provide a review for this. It's worth noting that they have their own web-based learning system as well! I have no personal experience with it so cannot say more – but feel free to look it up!

Other options

Do you know other options that should be here? Shoot me an email and we can discuss it. I'm going to be a bit choosy about who we add going forward, but if you want to be listed on this page the main thing I need is a digital copy of the text of your book so I can run it through the AI. Don't worry, we won't use it with any of our resources!

Happy studies!

Glossary of Amateur Radio Terms

Welcome to the amateur radio glossary! Here you'll find definitions for common terms used in the amateur radio community and throughout this book. Understanding these terms will help you communicate effectively with other hams and better comprehend technical discussions.

A

Amateur Radio

A radio communication service used by licensed operators for personal communication, technical exploration, emergency communication, and public service. Governed by the FCC in the United States, amateur radio operators (hams) use various frequency bands and modes to communicate locally and globally.

APRS (Automatic Packet Reporting System)

A digital communication system that allows amateur radio operators to transmit position data, weather information, and short text messages. It provides real-time tactical communications with mapping capabilities. Discussed in Section 3.6.

ARES (Amateur Radio Emergency Service)

A volunteer organization for emergency communications. Discussed in Section 7.3.

B

Beacon

An amateur station that transmits communications for the purpose of observing propagation or related experimental activities. These stations typically send out periodic signals to help operators understand radio wave propagation characteristics.

Band Plan

A voluntary guideline for using different modes or activities within an amateur radio band. While not legally binding, band plans help operators efficiently share limited spectrum resources.

C

CTCSS (Continuous Tone-Coded Squelch System)

A sub-audible tone transmitted along with voice audio to open the squelch of a receiver. Often called "PL" (Private Line), it helps prevent interference and unwanted repeater activations.

CW (Continuous Wave)

Another term for Morse code transmission. Despite its name, it's not truly continuous but a method of communication using on-off keying of a radio signal.

It was originally called Continuous Wave to differentiate it from the raspy square waves generated by spark-gap transmitters. Over time, it came to be associated with Morse Code, although spark-gap transmitters also used Morse Code.

D

Digital Mobile Radio (DMR)

A digital voice and data radio technology that uses time-division multiple access (TDMA) to allow two voice channels in a single 12.5 kHz channel bandwidth.

Doppler Shift

An observed change in signal frequency caused by relative motion between a satellite and an Earth station. As a satellite approaches, the frequency appears higher; as it moves away, it seems lower.

DTMF (Dual-Tone Multi-Frequency)

A method of signaling that uses pairs of audio tones to send commands, often used in repeater systems and internet-linked radio networks.

When first used, Western Electric called it TouchTone (TM), but since other manufacturers couldn't call it by its trade-marked name, they referred to it as DTMF.

F

Frequency Coordinator

A volunteer or volunteer group recognized by local amateur operators who recommends transmit/receive channels and other parameters for auxiliary and repeater stations.

H

HF (High Frequency)

The radio frequency band between 3 and 30 MHz, known for long-distance communication through ionospheric propagation.

I

IRLP (Internet Radio Linking Project)

A system that connects amateur radio systems via the internet using Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP), allowing worldwide communication through linked repeaters.

L

LEO (Low Earth Orbit)

A satellite orbit relatively close to Earth's surface, typically between 100 and 1,200 miles above the planet.

M

Modulation

The process of combining speech or data with a radio frequency carrier signal. Different types include AM (Amplitude Modulation), FM (Frequency Modulation), and SSB (Single Sideband).

P

Packet Radio

A digital communication mode where information is transmitted in small packets of data, similar to how internet data is transmitted.

Part 97

Shorthand for the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 47, Chapter I, Part 97. Part 97 defines the Amateur Radio service and sets the rules and regulations which govern it.

Propagation

The way radio waves travel from a transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna. Different bands and frequencies have different propagation characteristics.

R

RACES (Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service)

An amateur radio service specifically for civil defense communications during national emergencies, operating under governmental authority.

Repeater

An amateur radio station that receives signals on one frequency and simultaneously retransmits them on another frequency, extending communication range.

RF (Radio Frequency)

Electromagnetic waves used for wireless communication, typically ranging from 3 kHz to 300 GHz.

S

Simplex

A communication mode where stations transmit and receive on the same frequency.

Space Station

An amateur radio station located more than 50 km above Earth's surface, typically a satellite.

SSB (Single Sideband)

A type of amplitude modulation that carries information on a single sideband of the carrier frequency, allowing more efficient use of radio spectrum.

SWR (Standing Wave Ratio)

A measure of how well a load (like an antenna) is matched to a transmission line, indicating the efficiency of power transfer.

T

Telecommand

A one-way transmission to initiate, modify, or terminate functions of a device at a distance.

Telemetry

A one-way transmission to report measurements collected at a distance.

Third Party Communications

A message transmitted by a control operator of an amateur station to another amateur station's control operator on behalf of another person.

U

ULS (Universal Licensing System)

The FCC database where licenses are recorded. An amateur radio license is valid as soon as it appears and is active in the ULS.

UHF (Ultra High Frequency)

The radio frequency band between 300 MHz and 3 GHz. Commonly used for local communication, including handheld radios and repeaters.

V

Vanity Call Sign

A custom call sign chosen by a licensed operator. See Section 8.1.

VHF (Very High Frequency)

The radio frequency band between 30 and 300 MHz.

VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)

A method of delivering voice communications over the internet using digital techniques.

Special Codes and Abbreviations

73

A traditional ham radio sign-off meaning "best regards" or "goodbye".

88

A friendly sign-off meaning "love and kisses", often used between hams who know each other well.

CQ

A general call meaning "seeking contact with any station".

QRM

Interference from other radio stations.

QRN

Atmospheric or natural static interference.

QRZ

"Who is calling me?"

QSL

Acknowledgment of receipt or understanding.

QSY

Changing to a different frequency.

QTH

The location of a station. For example, “My QTH is Salt Lake City” means “My location is Salt Lake City.”

Phonetic Alphabet

While it can be fun to make up your own Phonetics and many people do particularly for their call sign, using it for anything important can often lead to a surprising amount of confusion. For that reason, it's best to learn the official phonetic alphabet so that everyone uses the same terms and to maximize clarity in commmunications.

NATO phonetic alphabet

There are others, but the most commonly used phonetic alphabet is the Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet, commonly known as the NATO phonetic alphabet:

Letter | Phonetic | Letter | Phonetic
A | Alpha | N | November
B | Bravo | O | Oscar
C | Charlie | P | Papa
D | Delta | Q | Quebec
E | Echo | R | Romeo
F | Foxtrot | S | Sierra
G | Golf | T | Tango
H | Hotel | U | Uniform
I | India | V | Victor
J | Juliett | W | Whiskey
K | Kilo | X | X-ray
L | Lima | Y | Yankee
M | Mike | Z | Zulu

2022 - 2026 Technician Class Question Pool

Last updated: Jul 12, 2022

Subelement T1: COMMISSION’S RULES

Section T1A Purpose and permissible use of the Amateur Radio Service; Operator/primary station license grant; Meanings of basic terms used in FCC rules; Interference; RACES rules; Phonetics; Frequency Coordinator

T1A01: Which of the following is part of the Basis and Purpose of the Amateur Radio Service?

Advancing skills in the technical and communication phases of the radio art

T1A02: Which agency regulates and enforces the rules for the Amateur Radio Service in the United States?

The FCC

T1A03: What do the FCC rules state regarding the use of a phonetic alphabet for station identification in the Amateur Radio Service?

It is encouraged

T1A04: How many operator/primary station license grants may be held by any one person?

One

T1A05: What proves that the FCC has issued an operator/primary license grant?

The license appears in the FCC ULS database

T1A06: What is the FCC Part 97 definition of a beacon?

An amateur station transmitting communications for the purposes of observing propagation or related experimental activities

T1A07: What is the FCC Part 97 definition of a space station?

An amateur station located more than 50 km above Earth's surface

T1A08: Which of the following entities recommends transmit/receive channels and other parameters for auxiliary and repeater stations?

Volunteer Frequency Coordinator recognized by local amateurs

T1A09: Who selects a Frequency Coordinator?

Amateur operators in a local or regional area whose stations are eligible to be repeater or auxiliary stations

T1A10: What is the Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES)?

A:

A radio service using amateur frequencies for emergency management or civil defense communications

B:

A radio service using amateur stations for emergency management or civil defense communications

C:

An emergency service using amateur operators certified by a civil defense organization as being enrolled in that organization

All these choices are correct

T1A11: When is willful interference to other amateur radio stations permitted?

At no time

Section T1B Frequency allocations; Emission modes; Spectrum sharing; Transmissions near band edges; Contacting the International Space Station; Power output

T1B01: Which of the following frequency ranges are available for phone operation by Technician licensees?

28.300 MHz to 28.500 MHz

T1B02: Which amateurs may contact the International Space Station (ISS) on VHF bands?

Any amateur holding a Technician class or higher license

T1B03: Which frequency is in the 6 meter amateur band?

52.525 MHz

T1B04: Which amateur band includes 146.52 MHz?

2 meters

T1B05: How may amateurs use the 219 to 220 MHz segment of 1.25 meter band?

Fixed digital message forwarding systems only

T1B06: On which HF bands does a Technician class operator have phone privileges?

10 meter band only

T1B07: Which of the following VHF/UHF band segments are limited to CW only?

50.0 MHz to 50.1 MHz and 144.0 MHz to 144.1 MHz

T1B08: How are US amateurs restricted in segments of bands where the Amateur Radio Service is secondary?

U.S. amateurs may find non-amateur stations in those segments, and must avoid interfering with them

T1B09: Why should you not set your transmit frequency to be exactly at the edge of an amateur band or sub-band?

A:

To allow for calibration error in the transmitter frequency display

B:

So that modulation sidebands do not extend beyond the band edge

C:

To allow for transmitter frequency drift

All these choices are correct

T1B10: Where may SSB phone be used in amateur bands above 50 MHz?

In at least some segment of all these bands

T1B11: What is the maximum peak envelope power output for Technician class operators in their HF band segments?

200 watts

T1B12: Except for some specific restrictions, what is the maximum peak envelope power output for Technician class operators using frequencies above 30 MHz?

1500 watts

Section T1C Licensing: classes, sequential and vanity call sign systems, places where the Amateur Radio Service is regulated by the FCC, name and address on FCC license database, term, renewal, grace period, maintaining mailing address; International communications

T1C01: For which license classes are new licenses currently available from the FCC?

Technician, General, Amateur Extra

T1C02: Who may select a desired call sign under the vanity call sign rules?

Any licensed amateur

T1C03: What types of international communications are an FCC-licensed amateur radio station permitted to make?

Communications incidental to the purposes of the Amateur Radio Service and remarks of a personal character

T1C04: What may happen if the FCC is unable to reach you by email?

Revocation of the station license or suspension of the operator license

T1C05: Which of the following is a valid Technician class call sign format?

KF1XXX

T1C06: From which of the following locations may an FCC-licensed amateur station transmit?

From any vessel or craft located in international waters and documented or registered in the United States

T1C07: Which of the following can result in revocation of the station license or suspension of the operator license?

Failure to provide and maintain a correct email address with the FCC

T1C08: What is the normal term for an FCC-issued amateur radio license?

Ten years

T1C09: What is the grace period for renewal if an amateur license expires?

Two years

T1C10: How soon after passing the examination for your first amateur radio license may you transmit on the amateur radio bands?

As soon as your operator/station license grant appears in the FCC’s license database

T1C11: If your license has expired and is still within the allowable grace period, may you continue to transmit on the amateur radio bands?

No, you must wait until the license has been renewed

Section T1D Authorized and prohibited transmissions: communications with other countries, music, exchange of information with other services, indecent language, compensation for operating, retransmission of other amateur signals, encryption, sale of equipment, unidentified transmissions, one-way transmission

T1D01: With which countries are FCC-licensed amateur radio stations prohibited from exchanging communications?

Any country whose administration has notified the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) that it objects to such communications

T1D02: Under which of the following circumstances are one-way transmissions by an amateur station prohibited?

Broadcasting

T1D03: When is it permissible to transmit messages encoded to obscure their meaning?

Only when transmitting control commands to space stations or radio control craft

T1D04: Under what conditions is an amateur station authorized to transmit music using a phone emission?

When incidental to an authorized retransmission of manned spacecraft communications

T1D05: When may amateur radio operators use their stations to notify other amateurs of the availability of equipment for sale or trade?

When selling amateur radio equipment and not on a regular basis

T1D06: What, if any, are the restrictions concerning transmission of language that may be considered indecent or obscene?

Any such language is prohibited

T1D07: What types of amateur stations can automatically retransmit the signals of other amateur stations?

Repeater, auxiliary, or space stations

T1D08: In which of the following circumstances may the control operator of an amateur station receive compensation for operating that station?

When the communication is incidental to classroom instruction at an educational institution

T1D09: When may amateur stations transmit information in support of broadcasting, program production, or news gathering, assuming no other means is available?

When such communications are directly related to the immediate safety of human life or protection of property

T1D10: How does the FCC define broadcasting for the Amateur Radio Service?

Transmissions intended for reception by the general public

T1D11: When may an amateur station transmit without identifying on the air?

When transmitting signals to control model craft

Section T1E Control operator: eligibility, designating, privileges, duties, location, required; Control point; Control types: automatic, remote

T1E01: When may an amateur station transmit without a control operator?

Never

T1E02: Who may be the control operator of a station communicating through an amateur satellite or space station?

Any amateur allowed to transmit on the satellite uplink frequency

T1E03: Who must designate the station control operator?

The station licensee

T1E04: What determines the transmitting frequency privileges of an amateur station?

The class of operator license held by the control operator

T1E05: What is an amateur station’s control point?

The location at which the control operator function is performed

T1E06: When, under normal circumstances, may a Technician class licensee be the control operator of a station operating in an Amateur Extra Class band segment?

At no time

T1E07: When the control operator is not the station licensee, who is responsible for the proper operation of the station?

The control operator and the station licensee

T1E08: Which of the following is an example of automatic control?

Repeater operation

T1E09: Which of the following are required for remote control operation?

A:

The control operator must be at the control point

B:

A control operator is required at all times

C:

The control operator must indirectly manipulate the controls

All these choices are correct

T1E10: Which of the following is an example of remote control as defined in Part 97?

Operating the station over the internet

T1E11: Who does the FCC presume to be the control operator of an amateur station, unless documentation to the contrary is in the station records?

The station licensee

Section T1F Station identification; Repeaters; Third party communications; Club stations; FCC inspection

T1F01: When must the station and its records be available for FCC inspection?

At any time upon request by an FCC representative

T1F02: How often must you identify with your FCC-assigned call sign when using tactical call signs such as “Race Headquarters”?

At the end of each communication and every ten minutes during a communication

T1F03: When are you required to transmit your assigned call sign?

At least every 10 minutes during and at the end of a communication

T1F04: What language may you use for identification when operating in a phone sub-band?

English

T1F05: What method of call sign identification is required for a station transmitting phone signals?

Send the call sign using a CW or phone emission

T1F06: Which of the following self-assigned indicators are acceptable when using a phone transmission?

A:

KL7CC stroke W3

B:

KL7CC slant W3

C:

KL7CC slash W3

All these choices are correct

T1F07: Which of the following restrictions apply when a non-licensed person is allowed to speak to a foreign station using a station under the control of a licensed amateur operator?

The foreign station must be in a country with which the U.S. has a third party agreement

T1F08: What is the definition of third party communications?

A message from a control operator to another amateur station control operator on behalf of another person

T1F09: What type of amateur station simultaneously retransmits the signal of another amateur station on a different channel or channels?

Repeater station

T1F10: Who is accountable if a repeater inadvertently retransmits communications that violate the FCC rules?

The control operator of the originating station

T1F11: Which of the following is a requirement for the issuance of a club station license grant?

The club must have at least four members

Subelement T2: OPERATING PROCEDURES

Section T2A Station operation: choosing an operating frequency, calling another station, test transmissions; Band plans: calling frequencies, repeater offsets

T2A01: What is a common repeater frequency offset in the 2 meter band?

Plus or minus 600 kHz

T2A02: What is the national calling frequency for FM simplex operations in the 2 meter band?

146.520 MHz

T2A03: What is a common repeater frequency offset in the 70 cm band?

Plus or minus 5 MHz

T2A04: What is an appropriate way to call another station on a repeater if you know the other station's call sign?

Say the station's call sign, then identify with your call sign

T2A05: How should you respond to a station calling CQ?

Transmit the other station’s call sign followed by your call sign

T2A06: Which of the following is required when making on-the-air test transmissions?

Identify the transmitting station

T2A07: What is meant by "repeater offset”?

The difference between a repeater’s transmit and receive frequencies

T2A08: What is the meaning of the procedural signal “CQ”?

Calling any station

T2A09: Which of the following indicates that a station is listening on a repeater and looking for a contact?

The station’s call sign followed by the word “monitoring”

T2A10: What is a band plan, beyond the privileges established by the FCC?

A voluntary guideline for using different modes or activities within an amateur band

T2A11: What term describes an amateur station that is transmitting and receiving on the same frequency?

Simplex

T2A12: What should you do before calling CQ?

A:

Listen first to be sure that no one else is using the frequency

B:

Ask if the frequency is in use

C:

Make sure you are authorized to use that frequency

All these choices are correct

Section T2B VHF/UHF operating practices: FM repeater, simplex, reverse splits; Access tones: CTCSS, DTMF; DMR operation; Resolving operational problems; Q signals

T2B01: How is a VHF/UHF transceiver’s “reverse” function used?

To listen on a repeater’s input frequency

T2B02: What term describes the use of a sub-audible tone transmitted along with normal voice audio to open the squelch of a receiver?

CTCSS

T2B03: Which of the following describes a linked repeater network?

A network of repeaters in which signals received by one repeater are transmitted by all the repeaters in the network

T2B04: Which of the following could be the reason you are unable to access a repeater whose output you can hear?

A:

Improper transceiver offset

B:

You are using the wrong CTCSS tone

C:

You are using the wrong DCS code

All these choices are correct

T2B05: What would cause your FM transmission audio to be distorted on voice peaks?

You are talking too loudly

T2B06: What type of signaling uses pairs of audio tones?

DTMF

T2B07: How can you join a digital repeater’s “talkgroup”?

Program your radio with the group’s ID or code

T2B08: Which of the following applies when two stations transmitting on the same frequency interfere with each other?

The stations should negotiate continued use of the frequency

T2B09: Why are simplex channels designated in the VHF/UHF band plans?

So stations within range of each other can communicate without tying up a repeater

T2B10: Which Q signal indicates that you are receiving interference from other stations?

QRM

T2B11: Which Q signal indicates that you are changing frequency?

QSY

T2B12: What is the purpose of the color code used on DMR repeater systems?

Must match the repeater color code for access

T2B13: What is the purpose of a squelch function?

Mute the receiver audio when a signal is not present

Section T2C Public service: emergency operations, applicability of FCC rules, RACES and ARES, net and traffic procedures, operating restrictions during emergencies, use of phonetics in message handling

T2C01: When do FCC rules NOT apply to the operation of an amateur station?

FCC rules always apply

T2C02: Which of the following are typical duties of a Net Control Station?

Call the net to order and direct communications between stations checking in

T2C03: What technique is used to ensure that voice messages containing unusual words are received correctly?

Spell the words using a standard phonetic alphabet

T2C04: What is RACES?

An FCC part 97 amateur radio service for civil defense communications during national emergencies

T2C05: What does the term “traffic” refer to in net operation?

Messages exchanged by net stations

T2C06: What is the Amateur Radio Emergency Service (ARES)?

A group of licensed amateurs who have voluntarily registered their qualifications and equipment for communications duty in the public service

T2C07: Which of the following is standard practice when you participate in a net?

Unless you are reporting an emergency, transmit only when directed by the net control station

T2C08: Which of the following is a characteristic of good traffic handling?

Passing messages exactly as received

T2C09: Are amateur station control operators ever permitted to operate outside the frequency privileges of their license class?

Yes, but only in situations involving the immediate safety of human life or protection of property

T2C10: What information is contained in the preamble of a formal traffic message?

Information needed to track the message

T2C11: What is meant by “check” in a radiogram header?

The number of words or word equivalents in the text portion of the message

Subelement T3: RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

Section T3A Radio wave characteristics: how a radio signal travels, fading, multipath, polarization, wavelength vs absorption; Antenna orientation

T3A01: Why do VHF signal strengths sometimes vary greatly when the antenna is moved only a few feet?

Multipath propagation cancels or reinforces signals

T3A02: What is the effect of vegetation on UHF and microwave signals?

Absorption

T3A03: What antenna polarization is normally used for long-distance CW and SSB contacts on the VHF and UHF bands?

Horizontal

T3A04: What happens when antennas at opposite ends of a VHF or UHF line of sight radio link are not using the same polarization?

Received signal strength is reduced

T3A05: When using a directional antenna, how might your station be able to communicate with a distant repeater if buildings or obstructions are blocking the direct line of sight path?

Try to find a path that reflects signals to the repeater

T3A06: What is the meaning of the term “picket fencing”?

Rapid flutter on mobile signals due to multipath propagation

T3A07: What weather condition might decrease range at microwave frequencies?

Precipitation

T3A08: What is a likely cause of irregular fading of signals propagated by the ionosphere?

Random combining of signals arriving via different paths

T3A09: Which of the following results from the fact that signals propagated by the ionosphere are elliptically polarized?

Either vertically or horizontally polarized antennas may be used for transmission or reception

T3A10: What effect does multi-path propagation have on data transmissions?

Error rates are likely to increase

T3A11: Which region of the atmosphere can refract or bend HF and VHF radio waves?

The ionosphere

T3A12: What is the effect of fog and rain on signals in the 10 meter and 6 meter bands?

There is little effect

Section T3B Electromagnetic wave properties: wavelength vs frequency, nature and velocity of electromagnetic waves, relationship of wavelength and frequency; Electromagnetic spectrum definitions: UHF, VHF, HF

T3B01: What is the relationship between the electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave?

They are at right angles

T3B02: What property of a radio wave defines its polarization?

The orientation of the electric field

T3B03: What are the two components of a radio wave?

Electric and magnetic fields

T3B04: What is the velocity of a radio wave traveling through free space?

Speed of light

T3B05: What is the relationship between wavelength and frequency?

Wavelength gets shorter as frequency increases

T3B06: What is the formula for converting frequency to approximate wavelength in meters?

Wavelength in meters equals 300 divided by frequency in megahertz

T3B07: In addition to frequency, which of the following is used to identify amateur radio bands?

The approximate wavelength in meters

T3B08: What frequency range is referred to as VHF?

30 MHz to 300 MHz

T3B09: What frequency range is referred to as UHF?

300 to 3000 MHz

T3B10: What frequency range is referred to as HF?

3 to 30 MHz

T3B11: What is the approximate velocity of a radio wave in free space?

300,000,000 meters per second

Section T3C Propagation modes: sporadic E, meteor scatter, auroral propagation, tropospheric ducting; F region skip; Line of sight and radio horizon

T3C01: Why are simplex UHF signals rarely heard beyond their radio horizon?

UHF signals are usually not propagated by the ionosphere

T3C02: What is a characteristic of HF communication compared with communications on VHF and higher frequencies?

Long-distance ionospheric propagation is far more common on HF

T3C03: What is a characteristic of VHF signals received via auroral backscatter?

They are distorted and signal strength varies considerably

T3C04: Which of the following types of propagation is most commonly associated with occasional strong signals on the 10, 6, and 2 meter bands from beyond the radio horizon?

Sporadic E

T3C05: Which of the following effects may allow radio signals to travel beyond obstructions between the transmitting and receiving stations?

Knife-edge diffraction

T3C06: What type of propagation is responsible for allowing over-the-horizon VHF and UHF communications to ranges of approximately 300 miles on a regular basis?

Tropospheric ducting

T3C07: What band is best suited for communicating via meteor scatter?

6 meters

T3C08: What causes tropospheric ducting?

Temperature inversions in the atmosphere

T3C09: What is generally the best time for long-distance 10 meter band propagation via the F region?

From dawn to shortly after sunset during periods of high sunspot activity

T3C10: Which of the following bands may provide long-distance communications via the ionosphere’s F region during the peak of the sunspot cycle?

6 and 10 meters

T3C11: Why is the radio horizon for VHF and UHF signals more distant than the visual horizon?

The atmosphere refracts radio waves slightly

Subelement T4: AMATEUR RADIO PRACTICES

Section T4A Station setup: connecting a microphone, a power source, a computer, digital equipment, an SWR meter; bonding; Mobile radio installation

T4A01: Which of the following is an appropriate power supply rating for a typical 50 watt output mobile FM transceiver?

13.8 volts at 12 amperes

T4A02: Which of the following should be considered when selecting an accessory SWR meter?

The frequency and power level at which the measurements will be made

T4A03: Why are short, heavy-gauge wires used for a transceiver’s DC power connection?

To minimize voltage drop when transmitting

T4A04: How are the transceiver audio input and output connected in a station configured to operate using FT8?

To the audio input and output of a computer running WSJT-X software

T4A05: Where should an RF power meter be installed?

In the feed line, between the transmitter and antenna

T4A06: What signals are used in a computer-radio interface for digital mode operation?

Receive audio, transmit audio, and transmitter keying

T4A07: Which of the following connections is made between a computer and a transceiver to use computer software when operating digital modes?

Computer “line in” to transceiver speaker connector

T4A08: Which of the following conductors is preferred for bonding at RF?

Flat copper strap

T4A09: How can you determine the length of time that equipment can be powered from a battery?

Divide the battery ampere-hour rating by the average current draw of the equipment

T4A10: What function is performed with a transceiver and a digital mode hot spot?

Communication using digital voice or data systems via the internet

T4A11: Where should the negative power return of a mobile transceiver be connected in a vehicle?

At the 12 volt battery chassis ground

T4A12: What is an electronic keyer?

A device that assists in manual sending of Morse code

Section T4B Operating controls: frequency tuning, use of filters, squelch function, AGC, memory channels, noise blanker, microphone gain, receiver incremental tuning (RIT), bandwidth selection, digital transceiver configuration

T4B01: What is the effect of excessive microphone gain on SSB transmissions?

Distorted transmitted audio

T4B02: Which of the following can be used to enter a transceiver’s operating frequency?

The keypad or VFO knob

T4B03: How is squelch adjusted so that a weak FM signal can be heard?

Set the squelch threshold so that receiver output audio is on all the time

T4B04: What is a way to enable quick access to a favorite frequency or channel on your transceiver?

Store it in a memory channel

T4B05: What does the scanning function of an FM transceiver do?

Tunes through a range of frequencies to check for activity

T4B06: Which of the following controls could be used if the voice pitch of a single-sideband signal returning to your CQ call seems too high or low?

The RIT or Clarifier

T4B07: What does a DMR “code plug” contain?

Access information for repeaters and talkgroups

T4B08: What is the advantage of having multiple receive bandwidth choices on a multimode transceiver?

Permits noise or interference reduction by selecting a bandwidth matching the mode

T4B09: How is a specific group of stations selected on a digital voice transceiver?

By entering the group’s identification code

T4B10: Which of the following receiver filter bandwidths provides the best signal-to-noise ratio for SSB reception?

2400 Hz

T4B11: Which of the following must be programmed into a D-STAR digital transceiver before transmitting?

Your call sign

T4B12: What is the result of tuning an FM receiver above or below a signal’s frequency?

Distortion of the signal’s audio

Subelement T5: ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES

Section T5A Current and voltage: terminology and units, conductors and insulators, alternating and direct current

T5A01: Electrical current is measured in which of the following units?

Amperes

T5A02: Electrical power is measured in which of the following units?

Watts

T5A03: What is the name for the flow of electrons in an electric circuit?

Current

T5A04: What are the units of electrical resistance?

Ohms

T5A05: What is the electrical term for the force that causes electron flow?

Voltage

T5A06: What is the unit of frequency?

Hertz

T5A07: Why are metals generally good conductors of electricity?

They have many free electrons

T5A08: Which of the following is a good electrical insulator?

Glass

T5A09: Which of the following describes alternating current?

Current that alternates between positive and negative directions

T5A10: Which term describes the rate at which electrical energy is used?

Power

T5A11: What type of current flow is opposed by resistance?

A:

Direct current

B:

Alternating current

C:

RF current

All these choices are correct

T5A12: What describes the number of times per second that an alternating current makes a complete cycle?

Frequency

Section T5B Math for electronics: conversion of electrical units, decibels

T5B01: How many milliamperes is 1.5 amperes?

1500 milliamperes

T5B02: Which is equal to 1,500,000 hertz?

1500 kHz

T5B03: Which is equal to one kilovolt?

One thousand volts

T5B04: Which is equal to one microvolt?

One one-millionth of a volt

T5B05: Which is equal to 500 milliwatts?

0.5 watts

T5B06: Which is equal to 3000 milliamperes?

3 amperes

T5B07: Which is equal to 3.525 MHz?

3525 kHz

T5B08: Which is equal to 1,000,000 picofarads?

1 microfarad

T5B09: Which decibel value most closely represents a power increase from 5 watts to 10 watts?

3 dB

T5B10: Which decibel value most closely represents a power decrease from 12 watts to 3 watts?

-6 dB

T5B11: Which decibel value represents a power increase from 20 watts to 200 watts?

10 dB

T5B12: Which is equal to 28400 kHz?

28.400 MHz

T5B13: Which is equal to 2425 MHz?

2.425 GHz

Section T5C Capacitance and inductance terminology and units; Radio frequency definition and units; Impedance definition and units; Calculating power

T5C01: What describes the ability to store energy in an electric field?

Capacitance

T5C02: What is the unit of capacitance?

The farad

T5C03: What describes the ability to store energy in a magnetic field?

Inductance

T5C04: What is the unit of inductance?

The henry

T5C05: What is the unit of impedance?

The ohm

T5C06: What does the abbreviation “RF” mean?

Radio frequency signals of all types

T5C07: What is the abbreviation for megahertz?

MHz

T5C08: What is the formula used to calculate electrical power (P) in a DC circuit?

P = I × E

T5C09: How much power is delivered by a voltage of 13.8 volts DC and a current of 10 amperes?

138 watts

T5C10: How much power is delivered by a voltage of 12 volts DC and a current of 2.5 amperes?

30 watts

T5C11: How much current is required to deliver 120 watts at a voltage of 12 volts DC?

10 amperes

T5C12: What is impedance?

The opposition to AC current flow

T5C13: What is the abbreviation for kilohertz?

kHz

Section T5D Ohm’s Law; Series and parallel circuits

T5D01: What formula is used to calculate current in a circuit?

I = E / R

T5D02: What formula is used to calculate voltage in a circuit?

E = I × R

T5D03: What formula is used to calculate resistance in a circuit?

R = E / I

T5D04: What is the resistance of a circuit in which a current of 3 amperes flows when connected to 90 volts?

30 ohms

T5D05: What is the resistance of a circuit for which the applied voltage is 12 volts and the current flow is 1.5 amperes?

8 ohms

T5D06: What is the resistance of a circuit that draws 4 amperes from a 12-volt source?

3 ohms

T5D07: What is the current in a circuit with an applied voltage of 120 volts and a resistance of 80 ohms?

1.5 amperes

T5D08: What is the current through a 100-ohm resistor connected across 200 volts?

2 amperes

T5D09: What is the current through a 24-ohm resistor connected across 240 volts?

10 amperes

T5D10: What is the voltage across a 2-ohm resistor if a current of 0.5 amperes flows through it?

1 volt

T5D11: What is the voltage across a 10-ohm resistor if a current of 1 ampere flows through it?

10 volts

T5D12: What is the voltage across a 10-ohm resistor if a current of 2 amperes flows through it?

20 volts

T5D13: In which type of circuit is DC current the same through all components?

Series

T5D14: In which type of circuit is voltage the same across all components?

Parallel

Subelement T6: ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS

Section T6A Fixed and variable resistors; Capacitors; Inductors; Fuses; Switches; Batteries

T6A01: What electrical component opposes the flow of current in a DC circuit?

Resistor

T6A02: What type of component is often used as an adjustable volume control?

Potentiometer

T6A03: What electrical parameter is controlled by a potentiometer?

Resistance

T6A04: What electrical component stores energy in an electric field?

Capacitor

T6A05: What type of electrical component consists of conductive surfaces separated by an insulator?

Capacitor

T6A06: What type of electrical component stores energy in a magnetic field?

Inductor

T6A07: What electrical component is typically constructed as a coil of wire?

Inductor

T6A08: What is the function of an SPDT switch?

A single circuit is switched between one of two other circuits

T6A09: What electrical component is used to protect other circuit components from current overloads?

Fuse

T6A10: Which of the following battery chemistries is rechargeable?

A:

Nickel-metal hydride

B:

Lithium-ion

C:

Lead-acid

All these choices are correct

T6A11: Which of the following battery chemistries is not rechargeable?

Carbon-zinc

T6A12: What type of switch is represented by component 3 in figure T-2?

Single-pole single-throw

Section T6B Semiconductors: basic principles and applications of solid state devices, diodes and transistors

T6B01: Which is true about forward voltage drop in a diode?

It is lower in some diode types than in others

T6B02: What electronic component allows current to flow in only one direction?

Diode

T6B03: Which of these components can be used as an electronic switch?

Transistor

T6B04: Which of the following components can consist of three regions of semiconductor material?

Transistor

T6B05: What type of transistor has a gate, drain, and source?

Field-effect

T6B06: How is the cathode lead of a semiconductor diode often marked on the package?

With a stripe

T6B07: What causes a light-emitting diode (LED) to emit light?

Forward current

T6B08: What does the abbreviation FET stand for?

Field Effect Transistor

T6B09: What are the names for the electrodes of a diode?

Anode and cathode

T6B10: Which of the following can provide power gain?

Transistor

T6B11: What is the term that describes a device's ability to amplify a signal?

Gain

T6B12: What are the names of the electrodes of a bipolar junction transistor?

Emitter, base, collector

Section T6C Circuit diagrams: use of schematics, basic structure; Schematic symbols of basic components

T6C01: What is the name of an electrical wiring diagram that uses standard component symbols?

Schematic

T6C02: What is component 1 in figure T-1?

Resistor

T6C03: What is component 2 in figure T-1?

Transistor

T6C04: What is component 3 in figure T-1?

Lamp

T6C05: What is component 4 in figure T-1?

Battery

T6C06: What is component 6 in figure T-2?

Capacitor

T6C07: What is component 8 in figure T-2?

Light emitting diode

T6C08: What is component 9 in figure T-2?

Variable resistor

T6C09: What is component 4 in figure T-2?

Transformer

T6C10: What is component 3 in figure T-3?

Variable inductor

T6C11: What is component 4 in figure T-3?

Antenna

T6C12: Which of the following is accurately represented in electrical schematics?

Component connections

Section T6D Component functions: rectifiers, relays, voltage regulators, meters, indicators, integrated circuits, transformers; Resonant circuit; Shielding

T6D01: Which of the following devices or circuits changes an alternating current into a varying direct current signal?

Rectifier

T6D02: What is a relay?

An electrically-controlled switch

T6D03: Which of the following is a reason to use shielded wire?

To prevent coupling of unwanted signals to or from the wire

T6D04: Which of the following displays an electrical quantity as a numeric value?

Meter

T6D05: What type of circuit controls the amount of voltage from a power supply?

Regulator

T6D06: What component changes 120 V AC power to a lower AC voltage for other uses?

Transformer

T6D07: Which of the following is commonly used as a visual indicator?

LED

T6D08: Which of the following is combined with an inductor to make a resonant circuit?

Capacitor

T6D09: What is the name of a device that combines several semiconductors and other components into one package?

Integrated circuit

T6D10: What is the function of component 2 in figure T-1?

Control the flow of current

T6D11: Which of the following is a resonant or tuned circuit?

An inductor and a capacitor in series or parallel

Subelement T7: PRACTICAL CIRCUITS

Section T7A Station equipment: receivers, transceivers, transmitter amplifiers, receive amplifiers, transverters; Basic radio circuit concepts and terminology: sensitivity, selectivity, mixers, oscillators, PTT, modulation

T7A01: Which term describes the ability of a receiver to detect the presence of a signal?

Sensitivity

T7A02: What is a transceiver?

A device that combines a receiver and transmitter

T7A03: Which of the following is used to convert a signal from one frequency to another?

Mixer

T7A04: Which term describes the ability of a receiver to discriminate between multiple signals?

Selectivity

T7A05: What is the name of a circuit that generates a signal at a specific frequency?

Oscillator

T7A06: What device converts the RF input and output of a transceiver to another band?

Transverter

T7A07: What is the function of a transceiver’s PTT input?

Switches transceiver from receive to transmit when grounded

T7A08: Which of the following describes combining speech with an RF carrier signal?

Modulation

T7A09: What is the function of the SSB/CW-FM switch on a VHF power amplifier?

Set the amplifier for proper operation in the selected mode

T7A10: What device increases the transmitted output power from a transceiver?

An RF power amplifier

T7A11: Where is an RF preamplifier installed?

Between the antenna and receiver

Section T7B Symptoms, causes, and cures of common transmitter and receiver problems: overload and overdrive, distortion, interference and consumer electronics, RF feedback

T7B01: What can you do if you are told your FM handheld or mobile transceiver is over-deviating?

Talk farther away from the microphone

T7B02: What would cause a broadcast AM or FM radio to receive an amateur radio transmission unintentionally?

The receiver is unable to reject strong signals outside the AM or FM band

T7B03: Which of the following can cause radio frequency interference?

A:

Fundamental overload

B:

Harmonics

C:

Spurious emissions

All these choices are correct

T7B04: Which of the following could you use to cure distorted audio caused by RF current on the shield of a microphone cable?

Ferrite choke

T7B05: How can fundamental overload of a non-amateur radio or TV receiver by an amateur signal be reduced or eliminated?

Block the amateur signal with a filter at the antenna input of the affected receiver

T7B06: Which of the following actions should you take if a neighbor tells you that your station’s transmissions are interfering with their radio or TV reception?

Make sure that your station is functioning properly and that it does not cause interference to your own radio or television when it is tuned to the same channel

T7B07: Which of the following can reduce overload of a VHF transceiver by a nearby commercial FM station?

Installing a band-reject filter

T7B08: What should you do if something in a neighbor’s home is causing harmful interference to your amateur station?

A:

Work with your neighbor to identify the offending device

B:

Politely inform your neighbor that FCC rules prohibit the use of devices that cause interference

C:

Make sure your station meets the standards of good amateur practice

All these choices are correct

T7B09: What should be the first step to resolve non-fiber optic cable TV interference caused by your amateur radio transmission?

Be sure all TV feed line coaxial connectors are installed properly

T7B10: What might be a problem if you receive a report that your audio signal through an FM repeater is distorted or unintelligible?

A:

Your transmitter is slightly off frequency

B:

Your batteries are running low

C:

You are in a bad location

All these choices are correct

T7B11: What is a symptom of RF feedback in a transmitter or transceiver?

Reports of garbled, distorted, or unintelligible voice transmissions

Section T7C Antenna and transmission line measurements and troubleshooting: measuring SWR, effects of high SWR, causes of feed line failures; Basic coaxial cable characteristics; Use of dummy loads when testing

T7C01: What is the primary purpose of a dummy load?

To prevent transmitting signals over the air when making tests

T7C02: Which of the following is used to determine if an antenna is resonant at the desired operating frequency?

An antenna analyzer

T7C03: What does a dummy load consist of?

A non-inductive resistor mounted on a heat sink

T7C04: What reading on an SWR meter indicates a perfect impedance match between the antenna and the feed line?

1:1

T7C05: Why do most solid-state transmitters reduce output power as SWR increases beyond a certain level?

To protect the output amplifier transistors

T7C06: What does an SWR reading of 4:1 indicate?

Impedance mismatch

T7C07: What happens to power lost in a feed line?

It is converted into heat

T7C08: Which instrument can be used to determine SWR?

Directional wattmeter

T7C09: Which of the following causes failure of coaxial cables?

Moisture contamination

T7C10: Why should the outer jacket of coaxial cable be resistant to ultraviolet light?

Ultraviolet light can damage the jacket and allow water to enter the cable

T7C11: What is a disadvantage of air core coaxial cable when compared to foam or solid dielectric types?

It requires special techniques to prevent moisture in the cable

Section T7D Using basic test instruments: voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter; Soldering

T7D01: Which instrument would you use to measure electric potential?

A voltmeter

T7D02: How is a voltmeter connected to a component to measure applied voltage?

In parallel

T7D03: When configured to measure current, how is a multimeter connected to a component?

In series

T7D04: Which instrument is used to measure electric current?

An ammeter

T7D06: Which of the following can damage a multimeter?

Attempting to measure voltage when using the resistance setting

T7D07: Which of the following measurements are made using a multimeter?

Voltage and resistance

T7D08: Which of the following types of solder should not be used for radio and electronic applications?

Acid-core solder

T7D09: What is the characteristic appearance of a cold tin-lead solder joint?

A rough or lumpy surface

T7D10: What reading indicates that an ohmmeter is connected across a large, discharged capacitor?

Increasing resistance with time

T7D11: Which of the following precautions should be taken when measuring in-circuit resistance with an ohmmeter?

Ensure that the circuit is not powered

Subelement T8: SIGNALS AND EMISSIONS

Section T8A Basic characteristics of FM and SSB; Bandwidth of various modulation modes: CW, SSB, FM, fast-scan TV; Choice of emission type: selection of USB vs LSB, use of SSB for weak signal work, use of FM for VHF packet and repeaters

T8A01: Which of the following is a form of amplitude modulation?

Single sideband

T8A02: What type of modulation is commonly used for VHF packet radio transmissions?

FM or PM

T8A03: Which type of voice mode is often used for long-distance (weak signal) contacts on the VHF and UHF bands?

SSB

T8A04: Which type of modulation is commonly used for VHF and UHF voice repeaters?

FM or PM

T8A05: Which of the following types of signal has the narrowest bandwidth?

CW

T8A06: Which sideband is normally used for 10 meter HF, VHF, and UHF single-sideband communications?

Upper sideband

T8A07: What is a characteristic of single sideband (SSB) compared to FM?

SSB signals have narrower bandwidth

T8A08: What is the approximate bandwidth of a typical single sideband (SSB) voice signal?

3 kHz

T8A09: What is the approximate bandwidth of a VHF repeater FM voice signal?

Between 10 and 15 kHz

T8A10: What is the approximate bandwidth of AM fast-scan TV transmissions?

About 6 MHz

T8A11: What is the approximate bandwidth required to transmit a CW signal?

150 Hz

T8A12: Which of the following is a disadvantage of FM compared with single sideband?

Only one signal can be received at a time

Section T8B Amateur satellite operation: Doppler shift, basic orbits, operating protocols, modulation mode selection, transmitter power considerations, telemetry and telecommand, satellite tracking programs, beacons, uplink and downlink mode definitions, spin fading, definition of “LEO”, setting uplink power

T8B01: What telemetry information is typically transmitted by satellite beacons?

Health and status of the satellite

T8B02: What is the impact of using excessive effective radiated power on a satellite uplink?

Blocking access by other users

T8B03: Which of the following are provided by satellite tracking programs?

A:

Maps showing the real-time position of the satellite track over Earth

B:

The time, azimuth, and elevation of the start, maximum altitude, and end of a pass

C:

The apparent frequency of the satellite transmission, including effects of Doppler shift

All these choices are correct

T8B04: What mode of transmission is commonly used by amateur radio satellites?

A:

SSB

B:

FM

C:

CW/data

All these choices are correct

T8B05: What is a satellite beacon?

A transmission from a satellite that contains status information

T8B06: Which of the following are inputs to a satellite tracking program?

The Keplerian elements

T8B07: What is Doppler shift in reference to satellite communications?

An observed change in signal frequency caused by relative motion between the satellite and Earth station

T8B08: What is meant by the statement that a satellite is operating in U/V mode?

The satellite uplink is in the 70 centimeter band and the downlink is in the 2 meter band

T8B09: What causes spin fading of satellite signals?

Rotation of the satellite and its antennas

T8B10: What is a LEO satellite?

A satellite in low earth orbit

T8B11: Who may receive telemetry from a space station?

Anyone

T8B12: Which of the following is a way to determine whether your satellite uplink power is neither too low nor too high?

Your signal strength on the downlink should be about the same as the beacon

Section T8C Operating activities: radio direction finding, contests, linking over the internet, exchanging grid locators

T8C01: Which of the following methods is used to locate sources of noise interference or jamming?

Radio direction finding

T8C02: Which of these items would be useful for a hidden transmitter hunt?

A directional antenna

T8C03: What operating activity involves contacting as many stations as possible during a specified period?

Contesting

T8C04: Which of the following is good procedure when contacting another station in a contest?

Send only the minimum information needed for proper identification and the contest exchange

T8C05: What is a grid locator?

A letter-number designator assigned to a geographic location

T8C06: How is over the air access to IRLP nodes accomplished?

By using DTMF signals

T8C07: What is Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP)?

A method of delivering voice communications over the internet using digital techniques

T8C08: What is the Internet Radio Linking Project (IRLP)?

A technique to connect amateur radio systems, such as repeaters, via the internet using Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP)

T8C09: Which of the following protocols enables an amateur station to transmit through a repeater without using a radio to initiate the transmission?

EchoLink

T8C10: What is required before using the EchoLink system?

Register your call sign and provide proof of license

T8C11: What is an amateur radio station that connects other amateur stations to the internet?

A gateway

Section T8D Non-voice and digital communications: image signals and definition of NTSC, CW, packet radio, PSK, APRS, error detection and correction, amateur radio networking, Digital Mobile Radio, WSJT modes, Broadband-Hamnet

T8D01: Which of the following is a digital communications mode?

A:

Packet radio

B:

IEEE 802.11

C:

FT8

All these choices are correct

T8D02: What is a “talkgroup” on a DMR repeater?

A way for groups of users to share a channel at different times without hearing other users on the channel

T8D03: What kind of data can be transmitted by APRS?

A:

GPS position data

B:

Text messages

C:

Weather data

All these choices are correct

T8D04: What type of transmission is indicated by the term "NTSC?"

An analog fast-scan color TV signal

T8D05: Which of the following is an application of APRS?

Providing real-time tactical digital communications in conjunction with a map showing the locations of stations

T8D06: What does the abbreviation "PSK" mean?

Phase Shift Keying

T8D07: Which of the following describes DMR?

A technique for time-multiplexing two digital voice signals on a single 12.5 kHz repeater channel

T8D08: Which of the following is included in packet radio transmissions?

A:

A check sum that permits error detection

B:

A header that contains the call sign of the station to which the information is being sent

C:

Automatic repeat request in case of error

All these choices are correct

T8D09: What is CW?

Another name for a Morse code transmission

T8D10: Which of the following operating activities is supported by digital mode software in the WSJT-X software suite?

A:

Earth-Moon-Earth

B:

Weak signal propagation beacons

C:

Meteor scatter

All these choices are correct

T8D11: What is an ARQ transmission system?

An error correction method in which the receiving station detects errors and sends a request for retransmission

T8D12: Which of the following best describes an amateur radio mesh network?

An amateur-radio based data network using commercial Wi-Fi equipment with modified firmware

T8D13: What is FT8?

A digital mode capable of low signal-to-noise operation

Subelement T9: ANTENNAS AND FEED LINES

Section T9A Antennas: vertical and horizontal polarization, concept of antenna gain, definition and types of beam antennas, antenna loading, common portable and mobile antennas, relationships between resonant length and frequency, dipole pattern

T9A01: What is a beam antenna?

An antenna that concentrates signals in one direction

T9A02: Which of the following describes a type of antenna loading?

Electrically lengthening by inserting inductors in radiating elements

T9A03: Which of the following describes a simple dipole oriented parallel to Earth's surface?

A horizontally polarized antenna

T9A04: What is a disadvantage of the short, flexible antenna supplied with most handheld radio transceivers, compared to a full-sized quarter-wave antenna?

It has low efficiency

T9A05: Which of the following increases the resonant frequency of a dipole antenna?

Shortening it

T9A06: Which of the following types of antenna offers the greatest gain?

Yagi

T9A07: What is a disadvantage of using a handheld VHF transceiver with a flexible antenna inside a vehicle?

Signal strength is reduced due to the shielding effect of the vehicle

T9A08: What is the approximate length, in inches, of a quarter-wavelength vertical antenna for 146 MHz?

19

T9A09: What is the approximate length, in inches, of a half-wavelength 6 meter dipole antenna?

112

T9A10: In which direction does a half-wave dipole antenna radiate the strongest signal?

Broadside to the antenna

T9A11: What is antenna gain?

The increase in signal strength in a specified direction compared to a reference antenna

T9A12: What is an advantage of a 5/8 wavelength whip antenna for VHF or UHF mobile service?

It has more gain than a 1/4-wavelength antenna

Section T9B Feed lines: types, attenuation vs frequency, selecting; SWR concepts; Antenna tuners (couplers); RF Connectors: selecting, weather protection

T9B01: What is a benefit of low SWR?

Reduced signal loss

T9B02: What is the most common impedance of coaxial cables used in amateur radio?

50 ohms

T9B03: Why is coaxial cable the most common feed line for amateur radio antenna systems?

It is easy to use and requires few special installation considerations

T9B04: What is the major function of an antenna tuner (antenna coupler)?

It matches the antenna system impedance to the transceiver's output impedance

T9B05: What happens as the frequency of a signal in coaxial cable is increased?

The loss increases

T9B06: Which of the following RF connector types is most suitable for frequencies above 400 MHz?

Type N

T9B07: Which of the following is true of PL-259 type coax connectors?

They are commonly used at HF and VHF frequencies

T9B08: Which of the following is a source of loss in coaxial feed line?

A:

Water intrusion into coaxial connectors

B:

High SWR

C:

Multiple connectors in the line

All these choices are correct

T9B09: What can cause erratic changes in SWR?

Loose connection in the antenna or feed line

T9B10: What is the electrical difference between RG-58 and RG-213 coaxial cable?

RG-213 cable has less loss at a given frequency

T9B11: Which of the following types of feed line has the lowest loss at VHF and UHF?

Air-insulated hardline

T9B12: What is standing wave ratio (SWR)?

A measure of how well a load is matched to a transmission line

Subelement T0: SAFETY

Section T0A Power circuits and hazards: hazardous voltages, fuses and circuit breakers, grounding, electrical code compliance; Lightning protection; Battery safety

T0A01: Which of the following is a safety hazard of a 12-volt storage battery?

Shorting the terminals can cause burns, fire, or an explosion

T0A02: What health hazard is presented by electrical current flowing through the body?

A:

It may cause injury by heating tissue

B:

It may disrupt the electrical functions of cells

C:

It may cause involuntary muscle contractions

All these choices are correct

T0A03: In the United States, what circuit does black wire insulation indicate in a three-wire 120 V cable?

Hot

T0A04: What is the purpose of a fuse in an electrical circuit?

To remove power in case of overload

T0A05: Why should a 5-ampere fuse never be replaced with a 20-ampere fuse?

Excessive current could cause a fire

T0A06: What is a good way to guard against electrical shock at your station?

A:

Use three-wire cords and plugs for all AC powered equipment

B:

Connect all AC powered station equipment to a common safety ground

C:

Install mechanical interlocks in high-voltage circuits

All these choices are correct

T0A07: Where should a lightning arrester be installed in a coaxial feed line?

On a grounded panel near where feed lines enter the building

T0A08: Where should a fuse or circuit breaker be installed in a 120V AC power circuit?

In series with the hot conductor only

T0A09: What should be done to all external ground rods or earth connections?

Bond them together with heavy wire or conductive strap

T0A10: What hazard is caused by charging or discharging a battery too quickly?

Overheating or out-gassing

T0A11: What hazard exists in a power supply immediately after turning it off?

Charge stored in filter capacitors

T0A12: Which of the following precautions should be taken when measuring high voltages with a voltmeter?

Ensure that the voltmeter and leads are rated for use at the voltages to be measured

Section T0B Antenna safety: tower safety and grounding, installing antennas, antenna supports

T0B01: Which of the following is good practice when installing ground wires on a tower for lightning protection?

Ensure that connections are short and direct

T0B02: What is required when climbing an antenna tower?

A:

Have sufficient training on safe tower climbing techniques

B:

Use appropriate tie-off to the tower at all times

C:

Always wear an approved climbing harness

All these choices are correct

T0B03: Under what circumstances is it safe to climb a tower without a helper or observer?

Never

T0B04: Which of the following is an important safety precaution to observe when putting up an antenna tower?

Look for and stay clear of any overhead electrical wires

T0B05: What is the purpose of a safety wire through a turnbuckle used to tension guy lines?

Prevent loosening of the turnbuckle from vibration

T0B06: What is the minimum safe distance from a power line to allow when installing an antenna?

Enough so that if the antenna falls, no part of it can come closer than 10 feet to the power wires

T0B07: Which of the following is an important safety rule to remember when using a crank-up tower?

This type of tower must not be climbed unless it is retracted, or mechanical safety locking devices have been installed

T0B08: Which is a proper grounding method for a tower?

Separate eight-foot ground rods for each tower leg, bonded to the tower and each other

T0B09: Why should you avoid attaching an antenna to a utility pole?

The antenna could contact high-voltage power lines

T0B10: Which of the following is true when installing grounding conductors used for lightning protection?

Sharp bends must be avoided

T0B11: Which of the following establishes grounding requirements for an amateur radio tower or antenna?

Local electrical codes

Section T0C RF hazards: radiation exposure, proximity to antennas, recognized safe power levels, radiation types, duty cycle

T0C01: What type of radiation are radio signals?

Non-ionizing radiation

T0C02: At which of the following frequencies does maximum permissible exposure have the lowest value?

50 MHz

T0C03: How does the allowable power density for RF safety change if duty cycle changes from 100 percent to 50 percent?

It increases by a factor of 2

T0C04: What factors affect the RF exposure of people near an amateur station antenna?

A:

Frequency and power level of the RF field

B:

Distance from the antenna to a person

C:

Radiation pattern of the antenna

All these choices are correct

T0C05: Why do exposure limits vary with frequency?

The human body absorbs more RF energy at some frequencies than at others

T0C06: Which of the following is an acceptable method to determine whether your station complies with FCC RF exposure regulations?

A:

By calculation based on FCC OET Bulletin 65

B:

By calculation based on computer modeling

C:

By measurement of field strength using calibrated equipment

All these choices are correct

T0C07: What hazard is created by touching an antenna during a transmission?

RF burn to skin

T0C08: Which of the following actions can reduce exposure to RF radiation?

Relocate antennas

T0C09: How can you make sure your station stays in compliance with RF safety regulations?

By re-evaluating the station whenever an item in the transmitter or antenna system is changed

T0C10: Why is duty cycle one of the factors used to determine safe RF radiation exposure levels?

It affects the average exposure to radiation

T0C11: What is the definition of duty cycle during the averaging time for RF exposure?

The percentage of time that a transmitter is transmitting

T0C12: How does RF radiation differ from ionizing radiation (radioactivity)?

RF radiation does not have sufficient energy to cause chemical changes in cells and damage DNA

T0C13: Who is responsible for ensuring that no person is exposed to RF energy above the FCC exposure limits?

The station licensee

THE END!