“The real voyage of discovery consists not in seeking new landscapes, but in having new eyes.”

Adapted from Marcel Proust, Remembrance of Things Past.

ISBN 978 1 78702 276 8

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

VICTOR KING is Professor of Borneo Studies in the Institute of Asian Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam; Emeritus Professor in the School of Languages, Cultures and Societies, University of Leeds, UK; and Visiting Professor at the Regional Center for Social Science and Sustainable Development, Chiang Mai University, Thailand. He spent most of his career in the University of Hull, where he was variously Director of the Center for South-East Asian Studies, Dean of Social and Political Sciences, Director of the Graduate School, and Pro-Vice-Chancellor. He then moved to the University of Leeds where he took up the posts of Professor of Southeast Asian Studies and Executive Director of the Leeds/Sheffield White Rose East Asia Centre.

Professor King has undertaken anthropological and sociological research on Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, and Thailand, and supervised research projects on these and other countries, including Singapore, Vietnam, and Japan. A frequent visitor to Malaysia and the wider region, he has written extensively on its societies and cultures.

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MAP OF MALAYSIA

INTRODUCTION

The Federation of Malaysia, a nation of approximately 32 million people and a constitutional monarchy and democracy, is one of the successful newly industrializing countries of the Asia Pacific region. Formerly a relatively small but economically vital part of the British Empire, and a major exporter of the primary products of tin and rubber, Malaysia now has a diversified economic profile. It is still an important source of natural resources and tropical agricultural products—petroleum, natural gas, crude oil, aluminium, sawn timber and wood products, rattan, palm oil, pepper, coconut, pineapple, and rubber—but it is also a manufacturer of electrical machinery, computers, optical, technical, and medical equipment, clothing, rubber and plastic products, vehicles, and chemicals, with a growing services sector including a fast expanding tourism industry. It pursues a relatively open-door economic policy and plays an active role in regional and other international organizations.

In many respects Malaysia is a modern nation-state, and from a predominantly rural society in the immediate postwar years it has become an increasingly urbanized one. Nevertheless, elements of the traditional past remain. The country still presents the visitor with an exciting and fascinating medley of cultures—Malay, Chinese, Indian, Arab, Eurasian, Dayak, and aboriginal, and a large sector of migrant workers from the surrounding region, particularly Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand, and from the Indian subcontinent. These communities have retained, though in a much changed form, a considerable amount of their cultural heritage, and Malaysia continues to demonstrate the virtues of a culturally diverse, exotic, and vibrant “plural society” in customs, religion, festivals, costume, cuisine, language, and architecture.

To help foreign visitors and residents navigate this rich and complex cultural mix, Culture Smart! Malaysia provides a succinct and straightforward introduction to Malaysian history and society. It explains the deeper core values of the different ethnic groups, and guides you through Malaysian custom, etiquette, and behavior so that you are enabled to do the right rather than the wrong things. “Human intelligence” is key to successful relationships, and let us hope that we are sufficiently sensitive to be able to survive those inevitable cross-cultural moments.

This is only a guide, not a definitive document on what should or should not be done in a variety of situations. Much of what is presented here is based on common sense, and assumes that, when we encounter people of other cultures, we all try to behave reasonably and appropriately. The guide advises you on what might offend and what might please, but ultimately, it’s up to the reader to respond positively to another culture, to engage, relate, interact, and understand. If you have a passion for learning about other cultures, then stay with us on this journey to Malaysia!

KEY FACTS

Official Name

The Federation of Malaysia

Persekutuan Tanah Malaysia

Federal Capital

Kuala Lumpur.Pop. 2.2 million (2020 estimate)

Greater Kuala Lumpur/Klang Valley: pop. 7.99 million (2020 est)

Federal Administrative Center

Putrajaya/Federal Territory of Putrajaya

There are 13 states: 11 in Peninsular Malaysia and 2 in Malaysian Borneo.

Federal States and Territories

States: Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak, Perlis, Pulau Pinang (Penang), Sabah, Sarawak, Selangor, and Terengganu. Federal Territories: Kuala Lumpur, Labuan, Putrajaya

Major Towns and Cities

Kuala Lumpur (inc. Petaling Jaya and Shah Alam), George Town (Pulau Pinang/Penang), Ipoh, Malacca (Melaka), Johor Bahru, Kuching, Sibu, Miri, Kota Kinabalu, Tawau, Sandakan, Alor Setar, Kota Bahru, Kuantan, Kuala Terengganu, Seremban.

Population

32.37 million (2020 estimate)

Area

127,355 sq. miles (329,848 sq. km)

Climate

Tropical, hot and humid, more moderate in the highlands

Sea-level temperature range 72–92°F (22.2–33.3°C) all year; average annual rainfall is 98 in. (250 cm).

Currency

Malaysian ringgit (RM or dollar)

Exchange rate range 2019: RM $5 to 5.6=￡1 RM $4 to 4.2= US $1

GDP

US $358 billion (2018)

Economic growth 4.6% (2019)

Ethnic Make-up

Bumiputera (62%), incl. Malays and other indigenous peoples (Orang Asli of Peninsular Malaysia, Dayaks of Sarawak, and natives of Sabah); Chinese (20.6%); Indian (6.2%); Others (0.9%), and Non-citizens (10.3%) (2017 est.)

Language

Bahasa Malaysia/Malaysian Malay/Malay (Bahasa Melayu), Mandarin and Chinese dialects (incl. Cantonese, Hokkien, Hakka, Hainanese, Teochiu, Foochow), Tamil, Punjabi, Telugu, Malayalam; in Sarawak, Iban is widely spoken and in Sabah, Kadazan and Dusun; English is widely spoken and a variety of English; as well as “Manglish” (a mix of Malay, English, Chinese, and Tamil).

Adult Literacy

93.73%

Religions

Muslim, Christian (Protestant, Catholic), Buddhist, Hindu, Sikh, Chinese religion (Confucian, Taoist)

Government

Federal constitutional monarchy. The king, selected on a five-year rotation among the nine hereditary sultans, appoints the prime minister from the largest party in the elected lower house. The government comprises an elected federal parliament and 13 state assemblies (nine headed by sultans and four by governors). Parliament consists of a non-elected Upper House/Senate (Dewan Negara) and an elected Lower House/House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat).

Media

More than 30 newspapers and tabloids in Bahasa Malaysia, English, Chinese and Tamil. Publicly-owned (RTM) television and radio channels. A satellite TV provider (Astro), an Internet protocol provider and a cable TV provider. Alternative Internet media providers: Malaysiakini and The Malaysian Insider.

Electricity

240 volts, 50 Hz

3-pronged plugs compatible with the UK

TV/Video

PAL system

Telephone

Malaysia’s country code is 60.

For Kuala Lumpur (0)3

Time Zone

GMT + 8 hours

CHAPTER ONE

LAND & PEOPLE

GEOGRAPHICAL SNAPSHOT

Malaysia’s far-flung territory extends over 127,355 square miles (329,848 sq. km), with significantly more than half its land area in the two northern Borneo states of Sarawak and Sabah (formerly British North Borneo). The Malaysian Borneo states are 620 miles (approximately1,000 km) long and 155 miles (250 km) at their widest point. The most prominent feature of Malaysia’s geography is the division between peninsular Malaysia (sometimes referred to as “West Malaysia”)—where the federal capital city, Kuala Lumpur, and the newly created administrative capital of Putrajaya are located—and Malaysian Borneo (“East Malaysia”), the two major parts of the country being separated by a wide expanse of the South China Sea, at the closest point some 398 miles (640 km) across.

Much of Malaysia is relatively thinly populated, particularly the great state of Sarawak, and the overall population density is around 255 per square mile (roughly 99 per sq. km), though most Malaysians live on the western side of the peninsula, from Pulau Pinang (Penang) in the north through Kuala Lumpur and Klang and on to Johor Bahru in the south, at the causeway that joins Malaysia to the Republic of Singapore. Malaysia’s colonial legacy and the British focus on tin mining and rubber cultivation help to explain the uneven or unbalanced character of the population and the economy. The most densely populated, economically advanced, and cosmopolitan parts of the country, such as the state of Selangor and the Klang Valley, are to be found precisely in those areas where tin and rubber were exploited and where the British developed an administrative, commercial, and communications infrastructure; 78.4 percent of the population is categorized as urban.

CLIMATE

Located in the humid Asian tropics between latitudes 1 and 7°, Malaysia has a monsoonal, equatorial climate. It is hot, humid, and wet; those from cooler and temperate climes might describe it as “very hot, very humid, and very wet.” For the first-time visitor the sensation is of having one’s face and head covered with a hot, wet towel. Some geographers distinguish seasonal differences in that the monsoon wind pattern provides some variation in rainfall, but not much in temperature. Temperatures are uniformly high, usually ranging between 77 and 91.5°F (about 25 and 33°C) at sea level, but some nights can be considerably cooler, and most nights are comfortably warm at about 70–71°F (21–22°C). The British colonials often retreated to hill stations, where temperatures in the Cameron and Genting Highlands in peninsular Malaysia are a few degrees lower.

After heavy rainfall the heat also subsides somewhat, but prior to rain the heat and humidity can be quite overpowering, and as high as 90 percent; the average year-round humidity is about 80 percent. After heavy rain there is a freshness in the atmosphere and pleasant smells that come from the intermingling of water and vegetation.

Malaysia experiences two major monsoonal cycles: the southwest monsoon prevails roughly from May to September/October, and the northeast monsoon from October/November to March/April. The start and end of the monsoon seasons is variable, and increasingly so with climate change. The northeast monsoon in particular brings heavy rain to the coasts of Malaysian Borneo and the east coast of the peninsula; in these areas annual rainfall levels can reach up to 200 inches (5,080 mm). Average annual rainfall ranges from 80 to 100 inches (roughly 2,000 to 2,500 mm), and the number of rainy days per year in Kuala Lumpur is normally around 200. The wettest city is Kuching in Sarawak, which recorded its highest rainfall level in 2016 at just over 213 inches (5,423mm); its rainiest month is January. There is also little seasonal variation in the length of day and night, with the sun rising around 6:00 a.m. and setting around 6:00 p.m.

The summit of Mount Kinabalu on the west coast of Sabah, Malaysian Borneo.

LANDSCAPE

Another significant element of the environment is that every state has a coastline, and the country shares extensive maritime borders with Indonesia, Brunei, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. In addition, its land borders total 3,147 km (1,955 miles) with Indonesia, Brunei, and Thailand. A considerable area of Malaysia also comprises relatively rugged upland terrain rising to 13,435 feet (4,095 m), with Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, the highest mountain in Southeast Asia, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Parts of the main range in peninsular Malaysia reach 5,580 feet (1,700 m); one of the highest points is 7,185 feet (2,190 m) at Gunung Tahan in the Titiwangsa range.

Most of the country is more than 985 feet (300 m) above sea level, but there are also extensive areas of lowland mangrove and peat swamp, particularly along the western parts of peninsular Malaysia and in long stretches of coastal Sarawak and eastern Sabah. Some of the best beaches are located on the east coast of the peninsula, and on islands like Langkawi, Penang, and Tioman with their developed resorts; well-established coastal resorts such as Sutera Harbour and Tanjung Aru are also to be found just outside Kota Kinabalu in Sabah, and in such places as Kuantan on east coast peninsular Malaysia. Malaysia’s islands conjure up all the popular images of a tropical paradise, with warm, golden sands, clear blue seas, coral reefs, and palm-fringed beaches, where the colors are startlingly bright and clear.

Even up until about forty years ago much of the country, particularly the uplands, would have been covered by dense tropical rain forests, but commercial logging, farming, road and dam building, and residential development have taken their toll. Large areas, especially in the rolling foothills, have also been developed for plantation agriculture, particularly oil palm, natural rubber, tea, and cocoa. However, the Malaysian government, recognizing the effects of human-induced environmental change, has suppported the establishment of national parks, forest reserves, and wildlife sanctuaries. As a result there re more than sixty national and state parks, forest reserves, and wildlife sanctuaries spread relatively equally between peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak, and Sabah. The most visited are Taman Negara, Bako, Tunku Abdul Rahman, and the UNESCO sites of Kinabalu in Sabah, and Gunung Mulu in Sarawak. Pristine rain forests, palms, lianas, Rafflesia, pitcher plants, orchids, towering uplands, rapids, waterfalls, limestone caves and pinnacles, orangutans, gibbons, macaques, proboscis monkeys, monitor lizards, deer, wild boar, and birds of paradise beckon the overseas visitor in search of something different.

Canopy walkway in the tropical rainforest of Taman Negara National Park.

A Long-Tailed Macaque in the highland resort of Fraser’s Hill.

THE PEOPLE

The total population of Malaysia was estimated at just over 32 million in 2019 (the last census was held in 2010 and population statistics are estimates and vary between sources). More than 80 percent of Malaysians live in the peninsula. The indigenous population—primarily Muslim Malays, but including the indigenous Dayaks and others of Sarawak and Sabah, and the Orang Asli of the peninsula—make up 62 percent of the population. The Chinese constitute 20.6 percent, and the Indians 6.2 percent. The “other”populations include Eurasians, Arabs, and non-Malaysian communities from other parts of Asia and beyond (11.2 percent).

In the Malaysian Constitution the Malays and the Dayaks of Sarawak and indigenes of Sabah are categorized as Bumiputera (literally, “sons of the soil”). Unlike the Malays, the Dayaks, who were famed as head-hunters and longhouse dwellers, are primarily non-Muslim; they are also divided into a large number of what are popularly called “tribes,” or ethnic groups. However, the natives of Borneo comprise more than half the population of Sarawak and about two-thirds of the population of Sabah.

The Orang Asli have a separate constitutional status as “aboriginals,” though for certain purposes they are seen as indigenous, like the Malays and the natives of Sarawak and Sabah.

It is important to note that Malaysia’s dramatic economic growth during the past fifty years has resulted in a rapidly increasing need for labor that cannot be satisfied in the domestic market. There may be around three million Asian migrant workers in Malaysia, mainly from Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines, and the Indian subcontinent, but also from Vietnam, Cambodia, and the Lao PDR. They are heavily involved in the plantation, construction, and services sectors, and about one-third of the total resides in the country illegally.

This is a very simplified picture of a much more ethnically complex reality. The three broad ethnic categories of Malays, Chinese, and Indians are internally differentiated so that Muslim Malays comprise a mix of people, some long-established on the peninsula, but many of them descended from relatively recent migrants from the Indonesian islands to the south.

The Chinese are made up of a relatively diverse range of communities tracing their descent mainly from southern China, including Hokkien, Hakka, Cantonese, Teochiu, Hainanese, and Foochow.

Indians are differentiated internally by religion (primarily Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims), caste, homeland, or origin in India, occupation, and language. In Malaysia there are Tamils, Bengalis, Gujeratis, Chulias, Parsees, and Malayalis, to name only the most prominent groups.

There are also interesting hybrid communities derived from intermarriage and cultural exchange: there are Eurasians derived usually from relations between European men and local women during the colonial period; then the Baba, Peranakan, or Straits Chinese, long-settled in the former Straits Settlements, who combine elements of Chinese and Malay culture, including a delicious hybrid cuisine; the Jawi Peranakan, or Muslim Indians of mixed Indian and Malay descent; and the Indian Babas or Melaka Chittys who are of Hindu Indian descent but who have absorbed much of the local Malay culture. Finally, the Dayaks, indigenes of Sabah, and the Orang Asli of the peninsula are differentiated into a complex array of separate ethnic groups.

These multiple divisions were gradually rationalized and simplified in censuses and in constitutional and administrative terms during the colonial period and in the postwar years. Political party formation also contributed to the process as broad ethnic categories—Malays, Chinese, and Indians, as well as Dayaks—became associated with particular political parties and their supporting associations. The indigenous population, especially the Malays, enjoy constitutional privileges in areas such as employment, business, higher education, and political life; these were strengthened formally by the New Economic Policy launched in 1970. The main areas of politics, and particularly senior leadership roles, the key ministries, and decision making, are the preserve of the Malays.

A BRIEF HISTORY

Trade and Religion

The lands that now comprise the Federation of Malaysia straddle the great sea routes between India and China and provided a meeting point for merchants, sailors, travelers, and pilgrims carried by the monsoonal winds across the Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal, and the South China Sea. They also served as commercial and exchange points for traders carrying local goods within the Malay–Indonesian archipelago. For this reason Malaysia, particularly the peninsula and the coastline bordering the strategically important Straits of Malacca (Melaka), has long been a focus for maritime trade.

Dutch print of a Southeast Asian junk with rattan sails and wooden anchor, 1596.

Early in the first millennium CE the coasts of what was popularly called the Malayan or Malay Peninsula, and known by the Indians originally as the “Golden Chersonese,” were the location of small trading states, visited by Indian, Chinese, and Middle Eastern merchants and traders. These early kingdoms embraced variants of Indian Hinduism and Buddhism and Indian court culture and statecraft, and for a time came under the control of larger states like Buddhist Srivijaya, farther south in Sumatra and Java in what is now Indonesia. Indeed, the lands in the two neighboring countries of what came to be called Malaysia and Indonesia, along with Singapore and Brunei, were seen as interconnected and a part of seaborne states that based their power on control of strategic ports, harbors, and seaways.

Subsequently the great religion of trade, Islam, began to be established along the coasts of Sumatra, Java, and the Malayan Peninsula during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Sunni Islam and such traditions as Sufism were brought to Southeast Asia via India by Arab, Persian, and north Indian teachers, holy men, and traders, and the local rulers and elites whose states were involved in Asian trade began to be converted to this new and powerful religion. Conversion was not the result of military intervention and subjugation; it was instead a relatively peaceful process of social, economic, and cultural interaction, cultural exchange, and intermarriage. Local Malay and other rulers recognized the importance as well as the political and economic advantages of embracing this rapidly expanding and internationalized religion.

Malacca

One such Muslim Malay state and entrepot, which rose to prominence from the early fifteenth century, was Malacca (now transcribed as Melaka), occupying a strategic position overlooking the Straits and involved in the long-distance trade of valuable spices (including pepper, cloves, mace, and nutmeg), precious metals, tin, textiles, porcelain, silks, and exotic tropical produce such as camphor and aromatic sandalwood. Malaysian history did not begin with Malacca, but until recently the government, preoccupied with raising the importance of Malay culture and achievements in national history, declared that Malacca was “where it all began” in the early fifteenth century. Malay culture and language developed in southern Sumatra (and also western Borneo) and the archaeological and historical evidence suggests that the Buddhist trading kingdom of Srivijaya, which emerged in the seventh century CE in the area of what is now Palembang, was an early Malay political center. However, it was the commercial and political success of Malacca that led to the dissemination of Islam and Malay culture through the Malay–Indonesian archipelago and into the southern Philippines.

Oral traditions say that Malacca was founded by a Hindu–Buddhist prince, possibly of Srivijayan origin, Parameswara, but one of his immediate successors converted to Islam probably during the early fifteenth century. Malacca became very prosperous under Sultans Muzaffar Shah and Mansur. Mansur was also ably supported by his distinguished lieutenants, Tun Perak, Tun Ali, and Hang Tuah, who occupy a special place in Malay historical annals and whose characters, values, and wisdom have served as role models for subsequent Malay leaders and heroes.

The Portuguese

Had it not been for the increasing intervention of the ambitious Iberian states of Portugal and Spain in maritime Southeast Asia from the sixteenth century, it is most probable that the conversion of Hindu–Buddhist and pagan communities to Islam would have continued apace, or have accelerated. Malay sultanates were subsequently established throughout the Malayan Peninsula and in northwest Borneo; the territories that later became known as Sarawak and Sabah were subject to the Brunei sultanate, and parts of Sabah later came under competing Muslim polities in the Sulu and Mindanao region of the southern Philippines. The Portuguese reported that the Brunei ruler did not convert to Islam until the early sixteenth century, though this is disputed locally in favor of an earlier date, but Brunei managed to maintain suzerainty over most of the surrounding northern coasts of Borneo until the increasing intervention of British traders and adventurers from the mid-nineteenth century.

View of Malacca in 1511, shortly after its conquest by the Portuguese.

It is no surprise that the Portuguese, as the preeminent European trading nation in Asia in the sixteenth century, decided that Malacca, as the focal point of the spice trade, and as a center of Muslim– Malay power, had to be defeated. Portugal and Spain were attracted to the region by the riches that control of the spice trade brought, by their desire to counter the power and influence of Islam and Muslim trade through Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean, and to secure recruits for Christianity.

The first Portuguese expedition east of India arrived at Malacca in 1509. Two years later under Afonso de Albuquerque they captured Malacca from Sultans Mahmud Shah and Ahmad Shah. Malacca then became the center of the Portuguese seaborne empire in the east. However, very little of the Portuguese legacy in Malacca remains, other than the stone gateway of the A Famosa fort; the Portuguese fortifications were subsequently demolished by the British. Nevertheless, there is a small Roman Catholic Eurasian community in Malacca that traces its roots back to the early Portuguese settlers and retains some modified elements of their language and culture, and A Famosa is an essential part of every guided tour of the town. The Portuguese also erected a church in the center of the town and named it “Our Lady of the Hill.” Subsequently it became a Dutch burial ground and was renamed St. Paul’s Church.

The Dutch

The Portuguese held Malacca for well over a century, but suffered continuous harassment from the surrounding Muslim states, including Aceh in northern Sumatra and nearby Johor, where the exiled Sultan and his retinue reestablished themselves. Eventually the Portuguese succumbed to the emerging mercantile and naval power of the Dutch, and from their base in Java and with support from the Sultan of Johor the Dutch took control of Malacca in 1641. For more than a century the Dutch reigned supreme in the archipelago and enforced trade monopolies on spices. During this time Malacca languished while the Dutch focused on their main settlement of Batavia (later Jakarta) in western Java; in alliance with the Dutch, the sultanate of Johor also prospered. Nevertheless, the Dutch left an indelible imprint on central Malacca in the shape of the Dutch governor’s residence (the stadhuys), built in 1650, and Christ Church, erected in 1753.

The British and the Straits Settlements

The center of political and economic gravity again shifted when the English East India Company secured the agreement of the Sultan of Kedah, well to the north of Malacca, to establish a base on the large west coast island of Penang (Pulau Pinang) in 1786. The British had built up their power in India, and were concerned to protect their interests there and in the expanding India–China trade by establishing a presence on the eastern margins of the Bay of Bengal. Francis Light named Penang Prince of Wales Island and the British settlement there George Town. A coastal mainland strip opposite the island (subsequently named Province Wellesley) was also transferred to Britain by the Sultan of Kedah in 1800. The British position on the Malayan Peninsula was further consolidated with the founding of Singapore by Thomas Stamford Raffles in 1819, and the eventual transfer of Malacca to the British by the terms of the Anglo–Dutch Treaty of London in 1824. All these settlements were brought together in 1826 as the Straits Settlements and administered from British India and then from the Colonial Office in London in 1867; by then the island of Labuan off the coast of what is now Sabah was included. As port centers Penang, Malacca, and Singapore were characterized by their cosmopolitan populations; they attracted traders and migrants from all over Asia and from the Middle East. In particular they all became important destinations for southern Chinese settlement.

The British and the Malay States

From their trading bases on the fringes of the Malay world the British were subsequently drawn into the affairs of the Malayan hinterland when tin mining expanded rapidly on the basis of finance and southern Chinese coolie labor organized through the Straits Settlements. Increasing conflicts between rival Chinese secret societies for control of the rich tin fields, particularly in the regions of Larut and Kinta in the state of Perak, not far from Penang, and the inability of the Malay sultan and his territorial chiefs to maintain law and order there, inevitably led to British intervention. Taking advantage of a succession dispute in the Perak sultanate, the British concluded a treaty, the Pangkor Engagement, with their favored candidate in 1874 by which a British Resident and supporting officials were installed to “advise” the Sultan. Similar agreements were reached with the other tin states of Selangor and Negeri Sembilan, and subsequently in 1888 a British Resident was installed in Pahang. These four states were then brought into a consolidated federal relationship in 1896 and administered from the new capital of the federation, Kuala Lumpur, a rapidly growing tin-mining town situated at the confluence of the Klang and Gombak Rivers.

Sultans at the first Malayan Durbar (Conference of Rulers) held in 1897.

The wealth of these western regions of the peninsula was based initially on rich tin deposits, but the economy was augmented significantly with the development of rubber cultivation and the rapid expansion of mainly foreign-owned rubber estates, worked primarily by immigrant South Indian Tamil labor, as well as the rapid increase in local, mainly Malay, rubber gardens grown on small farms. To service this fast-expanding colonial economy the British also developed a road, railway, and port infrastructure.

Most of the remaining Malay States (Kedah, Perlis, Terengganu, Kelantan), which were then under Siamese suzerainty, were progressively brought into the British colonial system and in 1909, as protected and unfederated territories, the Sultans there were also assigned British officers. Johor was the last state to be assigned an adviser in 1914.

Britain and Northern Borneo

In the Borneo territories there was a similarly piecemeal British approach to the extension of power. In Sarawak, the English adventurer James Brooke, and then his nephew Charles, as Rajahs recognized by the Brunei sultans, gradually extended their domains through cession and annexation at the expense of Brunei. In return for putting down a local rebellion against Brunei, James Brooke was appointed Rajah and Governor of Sarawak in November 1841. At that time the state only occupied a relatively small corner of northwestern Borneo, but James embarked on ambitious plans for expansion. By the early twentieth century piracy and tribal head-hunting had been suppressed and the Sarawak domains of Charles Brooke were extensive and had completely surrounded the small and weakened Brunei sultanate.

In addition, in the late 1870s a British businessman, Alfred Dent, went into partnership with the Austrian Consul in Hong Kong and secured territories in the northeastern regions of Borneo from the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu. The British government gave Dent’s company a royal charter in 1881, and henceforth the British North Borneo Chartered Company, like the Brooke Raj to the south, began to extend its possessions and progressively took over the administration of territories to the northwest of Sarawak and Brunei and to the south of the Philippines. Sarawak, British North Borneo, and Brunei were granted Protectorate status by the British in 1888 to ensure that this region remained firmly in British hands.

The British Legacy and the Plural Society

Overall Britain created a colonial economy in these disparate territories, which were progressively integrated into the British Empire and the world market. Malaya in particular became a major exporter of tin and natural rubber. Subsequently oil was discovered in Sarawak and neighboring Brunei. One of the most significant, and for postindependence Malaysia, worrying legacies of the colonial period was the creation of a culturally diverse set of communities, generated principally by large-scale immigration from other parts of Asia.

The broad ethnic categories today recognized in Malaysia—the Malays, the Chinese, and the Indians, along with minority groups in peninsular Malaysia, lumped together as Orang Asli, or aborigines, and in the Borneo territories the Dayaks and other native groups—became closely, though not completely, associated with economic functions during the colonial period. Malays tended to be involved in traditional peasant and small farm agriculture and fishing, though there were those who were also drawn into the colonial administration and were employed in the sultanates. Traditional Malay culture and communities thrived particularly in the remoter east-coast peninsular states of Kelantan and Terengganu and away from the main centers of commerce. The Chinese were drawn into the colonial economy as entrepreneurs and wage laborers, and were important intermediaries in trade, retailing, and finance, especially in the more developed, economically active west-coast states and in the urban areas of the peninsula. Indians moved into urban-based occupations in shopkeeping, trade, moneylending, the police, army, and professions, and Tamils from southern India were employed as laborers on rubber plantations. A more complex, but nevertheless broadly similar plural system developed in the Borneo territories as well.

The Last Years of Colonialism

The Interwar Years

Although Malaysia did not see the strongly anticolonial nationalist movements that developed in other parts of Southeast Asia, there was an increasing consciousness of identity among the three major ethnic categories of Chinese, Indians, and Malays. The Chinese and Indians in particular were influenced by the emerging nationalisms in their home countries, and the Malays responded to the perceived threat of being swamped by the culturally very different and economically more successful Chinese and, to a lesser extent, Indians. The Borneo territories saw very little in the way of organized anticolonial protest.

The Japanese Occupation

The rapid Japanese invasion and conquest of Southeast Asia between December 1941 and February 1942 took the Western colonial powers by surprise. It demonstrated that the assumptions of the local populations about the invincibility of the West and the permanence and power of colonialism were mistaken. Just over three years of Japanese occupation and the disruption of war also paved the way for indigenous nationalist movements and political leaders to declare or secure political independence in the immediate postwar years in North Vietnam, Burma, Indonesia, and the Philippines. In Malaysia nationalist sentiments, while present, did not result in a united struggle for independence, given the sharp ethnic divisions and Britain’s intention to grant independence sooner rather than later.

The Prelude to Independence

In Sarawak and British North Borneo events took a rather different turn. The damage inflicted by war and the occupation meant that the Brookes in Sarawak and the Chartered Company in British North Borneo could no longer muster the resources to administer their respective territories in a rapidly changing and far more politically unstable and uncertain postwar world. The internal administration of both protectorates was therefore taken over by the British government and they were designated as crown colonies.

In the Malayan Peninsula Britain formulated plans to bring the disparate territories (with the exception of Singapore) together as a crown colony called the Malayan Union in 1946. This was designed to give all peoples, local and immigrant, equal citizenship rights, and, had it been implemented, it would also have served to weaken the special position of the Malays and the sultans. This naturally provoked strong opposition from the Malays; it served as a spur to their political coordination, resulting in a British climbdown and the decision to replace the Union with the Federation of Malaya and to acknowledge and confirm the special position of the Malays vis-à-vis the immigrant populations, particularly the Chinese.

The Malayan Emergency

Ethnic divisions emerged forcefully with a most traumatic experience for postwar Malaya. The so-called Malayan Emergency was instigated by a largely Chinese anti-Japanese military force, dominated by the Malayan Communist Party, which went back into the jungle to fight for independence from Britain. The young disaffected Chinese, though fighting for independence, as they had done during the Japanese occupation, were also fighting, as they saw it, for the rights of all Malayans. The Emergency formally lasted from 1948 until 1960, during which time the British worked and negotiated with a pro-British alliance of ethnic-based Malay (United Malays National Organization, UMNO), Chinese (Malayan Chinese Association, MCA), and Indian (Malayan Indian Congress, MIC) political parties led by Tunku Abdul Rahman, which carried the Federation of Malaya (comprising the Federated and Unfederated Malay States, Malacca, and Penang) into independence on August 31, 1957. The Tunku, a member of the Kedah royal family, and an enormously respected political leader, became the first prime minister of an independent Malaya.

Tunku Abdul Rahman in 1960.

Malaysian Independence

The wider Federation of Malaysia came into being on August 31, 1963, with the addition of Singapore, Sarawak, and Sabah. Political differences over ethnic representation and rights between the Malay-dominated government in Kuala Lumpur and Chinese-dominated Singapore resulted in Singapore’s departure from the Federation in 1965 and the establishment of a separate Singapore Republic. The Sultan of Brunei declined to join the Federation, following extended and difficult negotiations over his status vis-à-vis other Malay sultans and over rights to Brunei’s oil revenue; Brunei eventually reached agreement to end its protected status and was granted full independence from Britain on January 1, 1984.

Since the independence of Malaya in 1957 and the enlargement of the Federation to form Malaysia in 1963, the country has been governed by a Malay-dominated coalition, primarily through UMNO up until 2018, when it was ousted by the opposition and Tun Mahathir Mohamad became prime minister for the second time leading an “Alliance of Hope” (Pakatan Harapan). In late February 2020 political tensions in the alliance led to the Prime Minister’s resignation on February 24 and the appointment to office of Tan Sri Dato’ Muhyiddin Yassin on March 1. All of the country’s seven prime ministers (Perdana Menteri) have come from Malay-dominated parties.

Prime Minister Najib Razak presenting the budget to the Dewan Rakyat in 2017.

GOVERNMENT

Malaysia is an unusual example of a federal constitutional monarchy that is also the product of the rather ad hoc arrangements that Britain put in place to ensure convenient and effective administration and economic development. It has nine potential kings and therefore nine royal families—truly an abundance of royalty. The nine hereditary sultans of the former Federated and Unfederated Malay states take it in turns, once every five years, to serve as the elected King of Malaysia, styled the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The Conference of Rulers elects one among their number to succeed. The remaining states of Penang and Malacca, formerly part of the British Straits Settlements, and Sarawak and Sabah, which were crown colonies, have governors appointed by the government for a four-year period, and do not participate in royal selection.

Malaysia is also an electoral democracy on the model of the Westminster parliamentary system, with a lower house, the elected House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat), and a partly appointed Senate as the upper house (Dewan Negara). Yet, in spite of a vigorous electoral system with regular elections and colorful electioneering, the country since independence has been governed by a Malay-dominated alliance of mainly ethnic-based parties. More power is embodied in the executive branch of government than the legislative branch, and the judiciary is closely controlled.

As a federation, the government comprises both federal and state-level institutions and organs. As with its royalty, Malaysia also has an abundance of government and administration. Malaysians are federal citizens, except for the East Malaysian territories, where they are citizens distinguished in various ways from their peninsular cousins. All citizens must carry an identity card from twelve years of age. There are also three federal territories: Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya, and Labuan. Each state has its own legislative chamber (Dewan Undangan Negeri) led by a chief minister who is referred to as Menteri Besar in the Malay States and Ketua Menteri in the four states with nonhereditary rulers or governors. Every state capital will usually have a harmonious mix of federal and state institutions, often occupying grand high-rise buildings.

The prime minister’s office in Putrajaya, the federal administrative center.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND ETHNICITY

The special position of the Malays in Malaysia and the need to provide them with a measure of protection against the more economically successful Chinese has been the major issue to dominate postindependence political life. There has been constant concern about issues to do with “race” or ethnicity, which are very sensitive matters in the country. Things came to a head with the postelection “race riots” and Malay–Chinese conflict on May 13, 1969. A state of emergency was declared and the then deputy prime minister, Tun Abdul Razak, took over a National Operations Council to promote national unity and ensure political stability. He then became the second prime minister following Tunku Abdul Rahman’s retirement in September 1970.

The UMNO-led Alliance then formulated its New Economic Policy (NEP), an antipoverty development strategy, directed primarily at addressing Malay poverty, and which sought to remove the identification of “race” with economic function by positive discrimination. The policy also required the achievement of economic growth so that the additional resources made available could be deployed in large part to raise Malay standards of living and to bring the rural Malays in particular into the modern sector, industry, and commerce without unduly penalizing the Chinese. Employment quotas in the public sector, scholarships for higher education, specific requirements for investment and ownership of companies, and regulations governing public contracts and licenses were all designed to shift the balance toward the Malays.

The Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur city ceter.

The NEP, which necessarily required an expanded and interventionist role for the state, was instituted in the Second Malaysia (Development) Plan of 1971–75. Malaysia also embarked on a strategy of export-oriented industrialization and actively sought foreign direct investment. This policy was continued under Malaysia’s third prime minister, Dato (later Tun) Hussein Onn, who took office in January 1976. The NEP was scheduled to run until 1990; it was then replaced by the New Development Policy (1990–2000), followed by the National Vision Policy (2001–2010), and then the New Economic Model (2011–2020) implemented in the Eleventh Malaysia Plan (2011– 2015), which, in principle, emphasizes a needs-based rather than a race- or ethnic-based strategy.

Despite some ups and downs, particularly the Asian financial crisis of 1997–98, and more recent economic difficulties, the Malaysian economy has continued to modernize and industrialize. These achievements accelerated under Malaysia’s fourth prime minister, Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad, who came to power in 1981. The positive discrimination in favor of the Malays, though this policy has been softened in the post-NEP years, and the success in achieving economic growth, have managed to secure political stability, a degree of interethnic harmony and acceptance, and unprecedented prosperity for an increasing number of citizens.

In the 1990s the country embarked on several megaprojects. The high-rise landscape of Kuala Lumpur boasts one of the tallest buildings in the world, the Petronas twin towers, and the majestic Menara KL Tower; there has been frenzied development of new residential, industrial, and “high-tech” zones, such as Cyberjaya in the Klang Valley; high-rise office, hotel, and apartment complexes line the main expressway from the airport to the capital; the road, rail, airport, and telecommunications infrastructure has been expanded and upgraded; there is the Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA1) opened in 1998 at Subang with an Express Rail link to KL; and KLIA2, to service budget airlines, and connected by internal rail to the main airport, opened in 2014. The Formula One racing circuit at Sepang, which has secured a continued agreement for hosting the F1 Grand Prix, and the Light Rail Transit (LRT), Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), and Monorail system in KL speak of a modern, globalized nation; there is an impressive administrative capital, opened in 1999, Putrajaya, styled “a garden city,” near the airport.

Malaysia, from a predominantly rural and agricultural society, and one based on natural resources in the mid-twentieth century, has become increasingly urbanized. The new images are of young Malaysians in designer jeans, with the ubiquitous smartphones and iPhones, shopping in air-conditioned malls or sitting in traffic jams.

Tun Mahathir retired in 2003, and bequeathed this successfully modernizing country to his successor, Datuk Seri (later Tun) Abdullah Badawi (2003–2009), also known as the “Father of Human Capital Development,” who presided over policies of moderate Islam and steady economic growth. After a poor election result in 2008 he stood down in 2009 in favor of the son of the late Tun Abdul Razak, Datuk Seri Najib Razak (2009–2018), who instituted a “1Malaysia” policy, economic liberalization, and quality growth. However, he was arrested by the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission in 2018 on charges of corruption, money laundering, breach of trust, and the abuse of power. His trial continued in 2020. Tun Mahathir then returned for his second period of prime ministerial office at the age of ninety-three, only to throw the country into political turmoil in late February 2020 with his resignation and the appointment of Tan Sri Dato’ Muhyiddin Yassin on March 1, 2020 as his successor.

In spite of political dissension among senior, mainly Malay, politicians on a relatively regular basis, what strikes the observer of Malaysian affairs over the past fifty years is the rapidity of its social and economic transformation, which shows no sign of slowing down and which the current prime minister has to attempt to administer and control in an increasingly uncertain global environment This uncertainty has been exacerbated by the 2020 coronavirus pandemic.

Two areas of Malaysian life are of particular interest and concern at the beginning of the twenty-first century: first, the changing values and urban lifestyles of young Malaysians, the impact of globalization on the traditional cultures, and how new and old can be brought into a harmonious relationship; and second, the pressures that are bearing down on the environment because of the demands of the modern middle-class consumer for cars, commodities, leisure, improved accommodation in residential estates and high-rise apartments, and travel.

CHAPTER TWO

VALUES & ATTITUDES

A CULTURAL POTPOURRI

Malaysia is most decidedly a plural society: multiethnic, multilingual, and multicultural. Before exploring this diversity, however, it may be useful to emphasize the overriding character of the country. Malaysian national identity is based on the major elements of indigenous Malay culture. The national language is Malay. The state religion is Islam, though with freedom of worship for the country’s Buddhists, Confucians/Taoists, Hindus, Sikhs, and Christians. The king is a Malay sultan, and the prime minister is always Malay. Malays are dominant in the main public sector national institutions such as government, the bureaucracy, and the police and military.

As we have seen, traditionally the Malays were rural-based, small-scale farmers, fishermen, and traders; many of them also served as administrators in the Malay sultanates. In popular tourist images the Malays are depicted in idyllic villages, living in thatched and wooden houses that are raised on stilts, shaded by coconut palms, sometimes on wide, sandy beaches; they wear large woven sun hats while they plow their paddies using buffalo, and transplant and harvest their rice in picturesque landscapes. They are seen flying colorful paper kites, spinning tops, and kicking woven rattan balls. However, these popular and stereotypical representations disguise a different reality. A rapidly growing urban, educated Malay middle class has emerged, though largely concentrated in the public sector, and Malays generally have become more urbanized. Those still in the countryside have embraced commercial agriculture.

The Chinese are mainly in private business, commerce, industry, and the professions. Their presence is obvious in the central business districts and markets of the main towns and cities. A popular image is the Chinese shopkeeper, usually referred to as towkay, in vest, shorts, and sandals, sitting at the front of his shop house with wares displayed on the adjacent sidewalk under the cool covered walkway. However, the Chinese are also found in commercial agriculture, such as in market gardening near urban areas. Many were also tin miners, though now there are only small numbers employed in the mining sector, and many are employed in industry, construction, the professions, and the service sector. Tourist literature frequently refers to the diverse, colorful, and noisy Chinese markets and stalls selling everything from cooked food, fruit, vegetables, flowers, fish, meat, designer items (clothes, watches, shoes, jewelry, perfumes), handicrafts (not just Chinese items), and souvenirs. Chinese lion and dragon dances, temples, Chinese opera, Buddhist statuary, lanterns, paper money and scrolls, fireworks and rockets, and joss sticks are again part of the cultural paraphernalia and touristic representation of the Chinese community.

The Indians are located predominantly in the urban sector in the professions, urban retailing, police, and army. The tourist will come across Indian money changers, who dominate the sector. Some continue to work in rural areas as estate laborers. Images of Hindu temples and rituals, street hawkers, colorful textile shops, and curry houses abound.

Many of the Orang Asli and Dayaks are still found in the interior regions of the peninsula, Sarawak, and Sabah as farmers. Some work on public sector plantations and in the timber industry. Increasingly younger people are finding their way into urban centers working in government, the public sector, and service industries. However, again the images that depict them may be rather different. One of the most striking is the tattooed Iban warrior in a loincloth, with hornbill feather headdress, beads, silver jewelry, arm- and leg-bands, and carrying a head-hunting sword or a blowpipe and shield. The foreign visitor should be aware of the difference between popular images and reality, and the fact that modern and traditional values intermingle.

Of course, generalizations about Malaysian society are just that, and they may not hold in all instances. There are always exceptions, and it is best to think of values as expressing particular emphases and tendencies. Do not expect Malaysians always to behave in a particular way, and keep in mind that in an ethnically diverse country there will always be variations in behavior between different groups, as we shall see in the later discussion of business relationships. Even within the same ethnic grouping, say the Malays, there are differences according to age, gender, social class, and occupational and educational backgrounds. The core, or “traditional,” Malaysian values and attitudes discussed below have been subject to external influences. Western or modern values and interests disseminated through film, television, music, education, mobility, and the Internet and social media, and through contact with Western businesspeople, tourists, and travelers, have made an impact, particularly among the younger generation and the urban population.

FAMILY

Let us now look for some common threads in this cultural pluralism. For Malaysians of all ethnic groups the values of family and kinship continue to be relatively strong, though among the younger generation there is a tendency for these to weaken with the pace of modernization and globalization and the physical and social mobility that goes with it. Obviously, it is more difficult for urban Malaysians, and particularly urban Malays, to keep in touch with family in rural and home areas, though they still do their best, and they now do so through social media and cell phones. During major festivals and holidays, one often hears the phrase balik kampung used among the Malay community; they are “returning to their village” to reunite with their family even if what they are returning to is not quite a village, or no longer as rural as it once was.

Family membership provides an individual with support, security, identity, and status, though one is expected to discharge one’s responsibilities and obligations in return. Malaysians remain very family-oriented, and family matters and interests take priority over other relationships. Families spend time together: a common sight in the early evening is that of local families, including children and grandparents, eating together in restaurants.

Family gathering to celebrate Hari Raya, the end of Ramadan.

Malaysians take great pride in their children, who are lavished with affection, protected, petted, and indulged by parents and senior relatives. Adoption is quite widely practiced within kinship circles, especially among Malays and Dayaks.

Generally, women are more closely associated with housekeeping, child rearing, and the domestic sphere, and men with the public sphere. In Chinese and Indian societies, inequality between men and women is noticeable, and in Muslim societies a degree of segregation of the sexes is evident in social gatherings. Nevertheless, there is a degree of flexibility in these relationships, and there are many examples of young fathers helping with child rearing, shopping, and domestic tasks; women are increasingly pursuing higher education and careers outside the home; and middle-class working women frequently employ domestic help. Moreover, women in Malaysia, as in Southeast Asia generally, traditionally played significant roles in rural economies, in agriculture, handicraft industries, and small-scale retailing. They are well-known for their astuteness in financial affairs.

CONFORMITY AND HARMONY

It follows from the strong sense of social and familial solidarity and responsibility that in Malaysia individual interests tend to be subordinated to the needs of the wider social group. In this situation deviation from social norms is difficult. There is therefore a higher degree of conformity than in Western societies, participation in community life is greatly valued, and mutual reciprocity and gift-giving is encouraged.

Social harmony is another important element of this ethos. Many Malaysians believe strongly that good relations within the community should be maintained, and that the behavior, morality, and spiritual condition of each person influence others. These attitudes place emphasis on the importance of consensus. Time has to be devoted to consultation with family, colleagues, and friends, and to collective decision making in a calm, controlled, and cooperative atmosphere. Openly expressed anger, aggression, or impatience directed at an individual is usually frowned upon, and is highly inappropriate.

DEFERENCE AND RESPECT

The family is in one sense a unit held together by bonds of affection, trust, support, obligation, and solidarity. But it also embodies and defines another social principle that is pervasive in Malaysian society, and that is hierarchy, or inequality, and the associated attitudes of deference and respect. The head of the family is usually the senior male, and relations are ranked according to relative age and seniority. Parents nurture, support, socialize, and protect their children, and other family members are usually on call to help when needed in return for the respect and loyalty demanded of their juniors. An older brother or sister may have to assume some responsibility for younger siblings, such as paying toward their education or assisting in the development of their careers. Children are expected to care for their parents in old age.

Learning deference and respect for one’s elders.

Among the Chinese the importance of the patriarchal extended family has also been sustained, and it is still evident in family business organization based on kinship, loyalty, and subservience, and the fact that everyone knows their place. However, even here there have been changes in the degree to which kinship bonds still matter in Chinese business circles, as we shall see later.

CONSENSUS

Malaysians love meetings, and the group ethic also finds its expression in traditional Malay village communities, with their emphasis on mutual cooperation (gotong royong) and consensus (muafakat) through meeting and discussion (mesyuarat). Direct confrontation and vigorous debate with strongly held opposing views are usually avoided; instead styles of communication tend toward obliqueness, vagueness, and subtlety in attempts to overcome potential conflict. See more in Chapter 8.

FACE

Westerners are familiar with the notion of “losing face.” It is an even more important concept in Malaysian society. It has to do with a person’s identity, self-respect, dignity and honor, and it also involves an evaluation or judgment by others in the context of a strong familial and community ethos. What others think of you matters. An individual can even lose face if someone close to them—a son, daughter, or sibling, for example—behaves inappropriately or comes in for criticism or gossip from others.

ATTITUDES TOWARD FOREIGNERS

Politeness

In keeping with the Malaysian emphasis on social harmony, control, and respect, and the fact that Malaysians live in a long-established multicultural environment in which they have had to live and work together with those of different cultures and ethnicities, the foreign visitor will find that, in general, their hosts are welcoming, tolerant, and polite. If the outsider is well behaved, is prepared to adapt and to interact with local people on their terms, and shows an interest in the local culture and language, then Malaysians will reciprocate in a helpful and friendly manner, though, of course, you should beware the over-friendly tout or huckster in tourist areas. If you are not so well behaved, you will not usually be reprimanded; rather you will receive cool, distant, but still polite service and responses, though you are already marked out as a “stupid” or “crass” foreigner rather than a “nice” one, and you will not have earned respect. Until you get to know them Malaysians are unlikely to correct you or to tell you to your face that you are doing something inappropriately; this would cause embarrassment to them and to you. However, if you ask for advice and guidance, it will be politely given.

One of the Family

Affectionate family feelings, and the obligations that go with them, may be extended to others. As you get to know Malaysians, though this is unlikely for a short-term visitor, you may find that they attempt to draw you into their circle by addressing you with a kinship term such as “brother,” “sister,” “aunt,” or “uncle.” You will have made friends for life, and the kinship bonds persist through time, even without regular face-to-face contact.

Personal Questions

In particular, and in a polite way, Malaysians will often ask foreign visitors about their family circumstances. They may ask whether or not you are married, and especially whether or not you have children, and ask about other matters to do with your social standing, occupation, and background. This should not be interpreted as undue prying: Malaysians are genuinely interested in getting to know you and finding out what kind of person you are, and it is seen as good manners to do so. This also helps your hosts in framing their social behavior and interaction with you. The best way to address this is to respond politely, ask them about their circumstances as well, and show an interest in their position within their society. This kind of exchange gives valuable topics for conversation and helps to break the ice.

Avoiding Public Embarrassment

The crucial principle in adapting to Malaysian cultural ways is to avoid public embarrassment. Openly displaying what you think or feel is not appreciated in Malaysia. If you deliver a public reprimand or raise your voice for what you consider to be poor service in a restaurant or shop, or for what you think to be inappropriate or rude behavior, it will usually go down badly and will not necessarily achieve your desired objective. The rather blunt remark that a Western visitor might make in a casual conversation should also be avoided. For the business visitor to Malaysia, and for the expatriate working there, the diplomatic, sensitive, and out-of-office informal handling of relationships and exchanges is vitally important (see pages 174–5).

HUMOR

Malaysians have a developed sense of humor, but it is best to wait until you get to know them well before plunging in with your favorite jokes. Local humor is primarily visual, though usually among close friends and family. Irony is used as a comic device as well as for poking fun at those with pretensions. You should be prepared to laugh at yourself, particularly if you make a cultural gaffe. Malaysians will not usually laugh outright at this, but they will smile if you show that you are not overly embarrassed and are prepared to learn from your mistake.

Subtle and polished verbal humor demands a considerable command of the local language, so don’t try it unless you are confident in the Malaysian language. But you must be very cautious about using any ethnic-based or political jokes in Malaysia’s multicultural society, or sexual innuendo in mixed male–female company, and especially in the company of devout Muslims. Don’t tell jokes that could embarrass your host or cause him to lose face. A good way to get into local humor is to read the local newspapers and cartoons.

FLEXIBLE TIME

The Malaysian preoccupation with keeping the family and social relations in good order, ensuring consensus, and maintaining harmony, requires time. The concept of Malaysian time is generally more flexible and open-ended than in the West; it is sometimes referred to locally as “rubber time,” in that it can be stretched and molded. Malaysians will endeavor to be punctual, but there may well be more pressing matters. Don’t be surprised if you are given a broad time span within which your meeting will take place, or if it overruns. In the major cities traffic jams are notorious and appointments often suffer delay.

THINKING OF OTHERS

The need for restrictions on movement and interaction imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic has had a particularly strong impact on cultures that emphasize the importance of family, kinship, community, and social and familial solidarity. Bearing this in mind, the foreign visitor should be conscious of the fact that Malaysian life is governed by social and community considerations, and be aware, at all times, of the feelings of others. Everyday encounters and interactions require you to put a lot of effort and thought into conscientiously putting yourself into the other person’s shoes.

CHAPTER THREE

RELIGION & FESTIVALS

Given their rich cultural mix, Malaysians always seem to be celebrating something, and though they usually invite members of other ethnic groups to some of their major festivals, their rituals are one of the clearest expressions of ethnic difference. Visitors used to the more secular societies of the West will soon realize that they are moving in a more religiously and spiritually charged and meaningful environment, and that mosques, temples, and churches are actively used and central parts of the lives of Malaysians.

The Malaysians enjoy several different religious festivals and public holidays. A small number of these are fixed. However, the Muslim, Chinese, and Hindu calendars are lunar ones, and therefore years are not of the same length, and the dates of most Malaysian celebrations are variable. The constituent states also have their own holidays, usually to celebrate such events as the local sultan’s or governor’s birthday, and not all events have religious significance. Visitors should check at the offices of Tourism Malaysia (Malaysia Tourism Promotion Board), or the Sarawak or Sabah Tourism Boards, or Tourist Information Centres for further information. Major celebrations are publicized in promotional literature, in the press, on the Internet, and on television.

MAJOR PUBLIC HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS

New Year (not celebrated in all states) January 1

Chinese New Year late January–February

Hari Raya Puasa (Breaking of the Muslim Fast) variable date

Vesak Day (the Buddha’s Birthday) April–May

Worker’s Day or Labor Day May 1

King’s Official Birthday first Saturday in June 2020–2022

National Day or Independence Day August 31

Deepavali (Festival of Lights) October–November

Christmas Day December 25

Some festivals have variable dates and are specific to particular ethnic groups: Hari Raya Haji (marking the successful conclusion of the pilgrimage to Mecca); Muslim New Year (Awal Muharam); the Prophet’s Birthday (Maulud Nabi); the Muslim Fasting Month of Ramadan, or Puasa; and the celebration of the Buddha’s birthday (Vesak Day). Also the Hindu Indian festival of Thaipusam in January–February.

Then there are celebrations for specific purposes: Federal Territory Day (in Kuala Lumpur, Labuan, and Putrajaya), February 1; Kaamatan Festival (Harvest Festival, Sabah and Labuan), May 30–31; Gawai Dayak (Harvest Festival, Sarawak), June 1–2; the Chinese Hungry Ghosts Festival, usually in July–August, and the Moon Cake Festival, September–early October. “Public Holidays in Malaysia” on Wikipedia lists national and state holidays.

Participants in the National Day parade in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah.

Every religion also has rites of passage or transition that mark important stages of the life cycle: birth, puberty, marriage, and death. In Malaysia these are usually attended by relatives and friends and are seen as ritually significant occasions that demand that those close to the person or persons at the center of the ceremony should attend and fulfill their obligations (reciprocated in due course when those attending organize their own rituals and invite others). A central and underlying principle of ritual activity is that it is based on reciprocity and mutual interest in meeting social and spiritual needs.

MALAYS AND INDIAN MUSLIMS

Malays and Indian Muslims are guided by the five basic principles of Islam: the profession or declaration of one’s faith in God and the Prophet; the offering of prayer normally five times a day (at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and after dark); the contribution of zakat, an annual charitable tribute or tithe; the observance of the fast of Ramadan (Puasa); and undertaking the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one’s lifetime.

The most obvious expression of Muslim religious life is Friday prayer, when men go to the mosque (mesjid) or the prayer house (surau). Usually they wear a black velvet cap (songkok), which is often worn at work or in the office as well, or a white skullcap or turban if they have undertaken the pilgrimage to Mecca. They may wear a robe in Arab style, with a loose jacket and a sarung (a decorated wraparound cloth for the lower body) or a cotton or silk suit with a richly decorated gold brocade sarung folded around the waist. The traditional call to prayer was usually issued from the minaret by the muezzin, but today it more frequently booms out as a prerecorded message.

Non-Muslims should not pay sightseeing visits or take photographs at this time. However, at other times visitors are welcome to enter a mosque if they are suitably dressed, with men in long trousers and women with arms covered and a long skirt. If you are not wearing appropriate clothing, a cloth or gown to cover yourself will be supplied. Shoes are removed at the entrance to a mosque, and visitors should behave in a quiet, controlled, and respectful manner.

Every Muslim home has its copy of the holy book, the Qu’ran, or Koran. It is treated with great respect, and usually kept in a special place covered by a cloth. Hands must be washed before handling it. Visitors, whether to a mosque or a home, should not casually touch the Qu’ran, even in order to learn more about it.

The ability to quote and chant passages from the Qu’ran is highly valued, and children, boys and girls, are sent to a Qu’ranic teacher to learn passages by rote.

PHOTOGRAPHY

Most Malaysians like to photograph and be photographed, and as you get to know them you will have no shortage of images and mementoes of your stay.

However, in general it is wise not to take photographs in sacred places or of particular rituals. If you wish to do so, you should ask the custodian’s permission. If someone is in the act of prayer, don’t disturb them, walk in front of them, or point your camera at them.

Performances staged for tourists are another matter, though these tend to be of a more generally cultural and nonreligious character. In any case it is always polite to ask whether a person minds being photographed.

Ramadan (Puasa)

During Ramadan, the ninth month of the Muslim calendar, believers do not eat, drink, or smoke from sunrise to sunset for twenty-nine or thirty days. Evil thoughts should be banished from the mind and a determined effort made to lead a pure life. It was the time when the Prophet exercised stern self-discipline as a means to cleanse the spirit and the body. During this period it would be less than tactful to eat, drink, or offer refreshments in the presence of those who are fasting. It would also be inappropriate to ask someone if they are fasting (which implies that you think they might not be), and it is best not to visit them socially or call in casually during the day. The household routine is transformed, with family meals being prepared very early in the morning and late at night. At this time some people find it difficult to carry out a demanding job or energetic sports, particularly as the day wears on. Certain people, such as the elderly and infirm, young children, and pregnant or menstruating women, are not necessarily required to fast.

The end of the fasting month is called Hari Raya, or Hari Raya Puasa. Special prayers are offered at the mosque and an open house is held for family, friends, neighbors, and colleagues. It is the one event in the Muslim calendar to which a foreign visitor might be invited. Celebrations usually last for three days but can be extended. It is a time for visiting and giving special thanks to parents and other senior relatives, and asking for forgiveness for past sins. Invitations are by word of mouth or a formal card, but a visitor can usually go along with a friend because open house means what it says. However, the times during which you can visit will be specified. Some houses will open for most of the day, but if you receive an invitation to the house of a dignitary, dates and times will be more precisely specified. It is an opportunity to sample the best of Malay or Indian curries, relishes, fish, and varieties of cooked rice. Do so sparingly if you have many houses on your itinerary.

Malay family breaking the fast together.

This is an appropriate time to redecorate or refurbish the house, and people put up colored lights, bunting, and tinsel. They may make or buy new clothes at this time, and everyone dresses in their best. Men don their songkok with brightly colored cotton or silk suits and richly decorated gold brocaded sarung, and women wear the baju kurung, a long, decorated, usually batik or gold or silver brocaded dress, with a long-sleeved blouse that reaches to the thighs.

Bringing a gift is not strictly necessary, but it is a nice idea to bring your hosts some flowers, sweetmeats, or candy, and to greet them with “Selamat Hari Raya.” Generally, the recipient of a wrapped gift puts it aside to open later. The modest and thankful receipt of a gift and the thought behind it are what is important, not so much what is in the package.

The exact timing of the celebrations depends on the sighting of the New Moon at the end of the month, which is then pronounced officially in the media. If the moon is not sighted on the last night of the month the breaking of the fast may be postponed for a further day. Everything shuts down for Hari Raya eve and the next couple of days.

The reuniting of family and friends means that airports, railway stations, bus terminals, and roads are crammed with people returning to their home communities. Traffic jams out of Kuala Lumpur and other major cities and towns are legendary. Usually transportation facilities, especially domestic flights, are block-booked several months in advance, and hotel and other accommodation can be a problem.

It is well to remember that there is another Hari Raya for Muslims, referred to as Hari Raya Haji, which marks the successful completion of the pilgrimage to Mecca. In such states as Kelantan and Terengganu there is a two-day holiday with much feasting and celebration on the return of the honored pilgrims, although in general it is not as lavishly celebrated in Malaysia as it is in the Middle East. For Malaysia Hari Raya Puasa is the main calendrical event. However, one may well see returning Muslims at airports and transportation terminals wearng Middle Eastern and Arab dress—a sure sign that they have been to Saudi Arabia and that they are openly expressing that important occasion.

Weddings

For the foreign visitor, Muslim wedding ceremonies (particularly Malay weddings) are of more importance than other rites of passage because of the greater likelihood of being invited to at least part of the celebrations. They are colorful affairs and if you are invited to one you should accept without hesitation.

In past times marriages were arranged by the senior members of the two families, and this may still happen from time to time, though less formally. Marriages today are generally much more a matter of personal choice, though parents will normally be consulted and the two families will decide on the details of the wedding and how the expenses are to be shared. Traditionally the wedding is held in the bride’s home and the groom is conducted there in procession, bearing gifts, and accompanied by tambourines, drums, and singing.

Customs may vary from region to region and can depend on whether the ceremony is held in an urban or rural setting. Bride and groom usually wear richly decorated silk brocade costumes, and the bride is also adorned with an array of traditional Malay gold and silver ornament. The groom and his family usually pay for the bride’s costume, and the groom is expected to buy his bride personal gifts such as perfumes and jewelry. The first part of the ceremony consists of a declaration by the groom to the bride’s father of his intention to marry, which he must deliver in the presence of witnesses and Muslim officials. Marriage documents must then be signed. The main element of the wedding for the guests, apart from the food, is the bersanding (the sitting-in-state, or enthronement). This is the part of the ceremony to which you, as a foreign visitor, are most likely to be invited.

During the bersanding, the bride and groom sit quietly and sedately side-by-side on decorated chairs on a raised dais, or on a richly decorated divan or bed. They are not permitted to look at one another, and must remain still and unresponsive to those around them, with eyes lowered. (At a village wedding, where everyone knows one another well, there may be some relaxation, with attempts to distract the couple with bawdy jokes.) Senior family members and friends come forward one by one to bless the couple. This is the solemnization of the marriage.

Wedding ceremony in Pontian, southwestern Johor.

Honored guests, usually including foreign visitors, are often invited to participate in the tepong tawar ritual, first for the groom, then for the bride. The senior women will take you through the ritual. The guests in turn touch the groom’s forehead with a gold ring, then a dab of rice flour or scented sandalwood paste is placed there, and his head and hands are lightly scattered with scented flower petals (bunga rumpai) and/or saffron rice grains, starting with his right hand and finishing with his left. The bride then goes through the same process. Perfumed water may be sprayed over the couple.

Kompang (tambourine) players In a traditional wedding procession.

The groom paying respect to his mother-in-law.

After the bersanding the bride and groom turn to each other and feed each other by hand with morsels of sweetened, glutinous rice. The wedding feast then commences. The food may be provided in an informal buffet style, with men and women mixing and sitting together. In a more traditional wedding men and women are seated in separate groups in a prearranged setting, in which case you will be shown to your table. Bride and groom may circulate among the guests. On departure guests are sometimes given a decorated hardboiled egg in a small container (bunga telur) or sweets or chocolates shaped like eggs to symbolize fertility.

Increasingly in modern weddings special caterers provide the food and also the costumes and other ritual necessities. The venue might be a hotel or restaurant rather than a domestic setting, and some of the traditional rituals might be shortened or modified.

If you are invited to a Muslim wedding, you can send a gift of money in a wedding card or some useful household item in advance to the bride’s home, or discreetly present it to a member of the family, usually a parent or an uncle, as they stand in line to greet the guests on the day.

Birth

The casual foreign visitor is unlikely to be invited to attend the ceremonies surrounding birth. However, longer established expatriates may have the opportunity to attend certain of the subsequent ceremonies, though these are primarily religious in nature and so invitations to non-Muslims are unlikely. If an invitation is received then suitable dress, with the body appropriately covered, should be worn.

Traditionally, after the birth the mother and baby undergo a period of confinement and remain in the house, during which time the mother eats a special diet and is massaged. Visitors may call briefly during this time to offer congratulations and give their best wishes and flowers or small gifts to the mother and/or baby; or perhaps a discreet gift of money for the child’s future. n some cases, the ending of this period may be marked by a family ceremony. After this the mother may return to work and assume her normal responsibilities.

Again, traditionally there were religious ceremonies in Malay society to introduce the baby to his cradle, to cleanse the baby by head shaving, and finally to place the baby’s feet on the ground for the first time. With modernization and urbanization, and the demands of work and career, many of these ceremonies might be omitted and the confinement period reduced.

Shaving the baby’s head in the Cukur Jambur ceremony.

Circumcision

Malay boys are usually circumcised before their teens; an appropriate time is after they have completed their first full reading of the Qu’ran. Nowadays the minor operation is usually performed in privacy by a doctor, and there may then be a family gathering. The large public ceremonies when several boys were circumcised together are confined to a few rural communities.

Funerals

The foreign visitor is highly unlikely to be invited to a Malay funeral, which is a family affair. If you have a particular connection with the family you may be invited to express your condolences. Either you will be invited to see the body of the deceased, which is placed in the family house for a short period, or you may remain outside and send your condolences, on a written card or letter, to the bereaved. Prayers are said for three nights following the death and then at certain intervals up to a hundred days after; this constitutes the mourning period. Malay funerals do not normally require wreaths. Usually white or mainly white clothing is worn; women cover their heads. Bright colors should not be worn.

CHINESE

The Chinese are mainly Buddhists, but they also follow Taoist and Confucian precepts. However, we might also characterize their belief system as a “folk religion” oriented specifically to the veneration of ancestors, and to interaction with the spirit world and to a host of deities. The Chinese will also usually have favored temples that they attend regularly, and they often pray to particular gods, some of them ancestral, to whom they offer prayers of thanks and from whom they seek favors, blessings, and good fortune. Normally you are welcome to enter a temple and purchase incense sticks to offer prayers to one of the usually numerous gods and goddesses represented there. You might see some worshipers sitting on the floor shaking a container full of long bamboo oracle sticks, from which eventually one stick will fall; the stick contains a message that is then interpreted by a resident fortune-teller.

The Buddhist temple of Sam Poh Tong, built inside a limestone cave in Ipoh, Perak.

The Chinese celebrate several festivals, and of these there are three important ones that the foreign visitor might experience: New Year; the Feast of the Hungry Ghosts; and the Moon Cake Festival. Chinese festivals are centered on the temples, where worshipers burn incense and present offerings of flowers and fruit and pray to the appropriate deities. A Chinese household will also often have an altar at home at which offerings and obeisance are made.

Taoist worshiper burning incense at Guan Di Temple in Kuala Lumpur.

Snakes Alive!

If you are sensitive to pungent smoke you might decide not to enter a rather dark space full of aromatic fumes. The atmosphere of the Snake Temple in Penang, founded in 1805, and close to the airport at Bayan Lepas and a favorite tourist destination, is especially acrid, because the fumes are said to render the numerous snakes kept there somnolent and harmless. Do not fear because the snakes, mainly pit vipers, have had their venom removed.

Chinese New Year

Chinese New Year, which is usually held in January or February, is not strictly a religious festival; it is celebrated by all Chinese whether they are Buddhist, Taoist, Christian, or inclined more to ancestor worship. All business comes to a standstill. It is a national holiday, and in most states lasts two days, though you may find that some Chinese may take a slightly longer break. The celebrations include street parades and dragon and lion dances. Family reunions are an essential part of the celebrations on the first day; there is a generous quantity of food, with a big family dinner, and many toasts are offered. It is a time when all family members make every effort to attend. There is an open house the following day, commencing mid-morning and ending late in the evening, with substantial supplies of alcohol, sweetmeats, and snacks. An ample supply of flowers, incense sticks, candles, and red oranges decorate the family altar, and families visit Buddhist temples. Visitors are greeted with handshakes. On the third or fourth day of the celebrations some families also prepare a special meal of raw fish and finely shredded vegetables.

Massed group of school student drummers usher in the Chinese New Year in Kuala Lumpur.

The Lunar New Year is an auspicious time and guests should not talk about anything that might bring bad luck in the forthcoming year, such as illness, misfortune, and death. There is an opportunity to pay respects to one’s elders as well as have fun with plenty of eating, drinking, gambling, and, for the youngsters, setting off firecrackers.

Children, or, more exactly, all nonmarried Chinese, are usually given ang pow—red paper envelopes containing money (red is a sign of good fortune). If you are invited to a Chinese home a gift of sweets, flowers, or a bottle of brandy or good alcohol is certainly appreciated. A gift of mandarin oranges is particularly appropriate as a symbol of good fortune.

Hungry Ghosts

The Hungry Ghosts festival usually takes place between July and August. At this time the spirits of the dead are thought to roam the earth, and they must be nourished to prevent them from bringing harm to the living. They are presented with food, and the burning of paper money and other paper gifts. The spirits are also entertained with Chinese operatic performances, and there is much lavish eating and drinking. This festival is especially celebrated among the Penang Chinese.

Moon Cake Festival

The Moon Cake Festival in September or October, which marks the appearance of the Autumn moon and celebrates the defeat of the Mongol dynasty in ancient China, is the occasion for the baking and eating of a rich pastry—the moon cake. The cake is made from bean paste, lotus seed, and sometimes duck egg. Colorful lanterns are lit, incense is burned, and there are family dinners. It is considered an auspicious time for organizing major events such as weddings. The foreign visitor should try moon cake—it’s delicious!

Weddings

Ang pow are useful gifts if you have been invited to a Chinese wedding; gifts of appropriate household goods are also welcome. These can be given discreetly to the family reception party. Normally an expatriate guest would be invited to the wedding banquet through a formal invitation written in gold lettering on a red card; you are unlikely to be invited to the wedding ceremony itself, which is usually a family affair. In fact, there are usually two banquets: one hosted by the bride’s parents a day or two before the wedding ceremony proper, which is the going-away party, and the other by the groom’s parents on the day of the wedding or the day after, which welcomes the bride to her new home. Nowadays the reception is usually held in a restaurant or hotel and no expense is spared. It is customary for newlyweds and parents to go from table to table inviting guests to drink the yum seng, or “bottoms up.” For those prone to getting tipsy very quickly, beware; yum sengs come thick and fast!

Births and Deaths

As with Malay custom, there is usually a period of confinement for mother and baby. The end of the confinement may be marked by a ceremony, usually modest, though sometimes more lavish; it also involves purification procedures. With modern urban lifestyles these observations are declining rapidly. Traditionally there were restrictions on when friends could visit the mother and child, but now with more hospital births, family friends and colleagues may visit soon after the birth. Gifts for the mother, including flowers and tonics, are appreciated and for the baby toys and clothes. Ang pow is also always welcome.

As for funerals, the most obvious element of the ceremony that the casual foreign visitor might encounter is the procession. The coffin is now usually kept at the funeral parlor for three days to one week, though it could still be kept at home. Visitors paying their respects at this time would be invited to wave lighted incense-sticks during prayers over the coffin.

The funeral procession, which moves on foot through the streets, is a noisy and eye-catching affair. If you are in a shopping area in a town or city you might hear the clash of cymbals and the beat of drums. People at the head of the procession carry lanterns on poles displaying the name and age of the deceased; banner carriers follow; then musicians, making as much percussive noise as possible to drive away evil spirits. The hearse carries the coffin, flowers, and paper replicas of items to be burned at the graveside and transported to the next world to accompany the spirit of the deceased. Family and friends follow the hearse. They may use rental cars and buses to take them to the burial ground.

Other Chinese Festivals

Chinese and other Buddhists usually celebrate Vesak Day in April or May. This is a national holiday in Malaysia, marking the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and death; it is a solemn occasion, with prayers offered at the temple.

The Dragon Boat Festival, between June and August, celebrates a Chinese saint who preferred to drown rather than be corrupted. Boat races are held in Penang and elsewhere.

The Festival of the Nine Emperor Gods falls in September or October and is the occasion for Chinese operas, processions, and, at some temples, fire-walking ceremonies.

HINDU INDIANS

Hindu Indians follow the ancient scriptures, the Vedas. They worship a Supreme Being, which has many forms and natures; the best-known aspects or manifestations of the divinity are Brahma, the creator, Siva, the destroyer, and Vishnu, the preserver. A temple is usually dedicated to a particular deity, though more than one main deity may have a place there, and in any case temples are also home to a large number of minor gods and goddesses. Temples are visited at any time during the week, though Friday is usually for collective prayers. Hindus believe in reincarnation and they hold to a fixed or predestined order of things, which in social and religious terms is embodied in the caste system. Indian households usually have a family altar where an oil lamp is lit and offerings of flowers and fruit are made.

Deepavali (Festival of Lights)

The most well-known of the Hindu Indian celebrations is Deepavali, or Diwali, which usually falls in October or November. It is the time for the gathering of family and friends to celebrate the triumph of good over evil in Hindu mythology, and the victory of Lord Rama over the evil King Ravana, or of Krisna over Asura/Naragasuran. Indian streets, houses, and shops are gaily decorated. Open houses are held and houses are also decorated with colored electric lights or lighted oil lamps, flowers, fruit, and sometimes floor decorations made from colored rice, pulses, and beans. It is a time when the old is swept away and a new beginning ushered in with the hope that good fortune and prosperity will follow. People may take baths sprinkled with scented oils and put on their finest new clothes; children receive gifts, and alms are given to the poor.

Thaipusam

The main Hindu public ceremony is Thaipusam, which is usually held in January or February. It is dedicated as a thanksgiving to Lord Subramaniam (Muruga) for prayers that have been answered, and it celebrates the virtues of courage, fortitude, and endurance. It also expresses penance. The most spectacular, colorful, and dramatic part, much photographed by tourists, is when devotees, who have made a vow during the past year, redeem it by carrying ornamental structures (kavadi) attached to their bodies by hooks and steel spikes that penetrate their flesh. The kavadi also contains two small pots of milk, which are used to bathe a statue of Lord Subramaniam. The devotees coat their bodies with holy ash, wear saffron robes, and may insert metal skewers through their cheeks and tongues. Participants go into a state of trance while the procession, with singing, chanting, drumming, and libations, makes its way to a temple or shrine.

In Penang there are usually particular routes used in the street parades and rituals held at the Waterfall Temple, and just to the north of Kuala Lumpur, the magnificent Batu Caves, a major tourist attraction, serve as the ritual focus. Both locations house important Hindu shrines.

Weddings

Indian weddings are similar to Malay ones. They are usually held at the bride’s house; bride and groom will also sit in state, and wedding guests sprinkle yellow rice and scented water over them. The wedding feast can be buffet-style or a traditional rural feast where guests are seated on the floor and are served with curries on banana leaves. During the ceremony prayers are offered to the god Ganesh or Ganesha (the elephant-headed deity who is the “remover of all obstacles”), a coconut is broken with a cleaver (symbolizing prosperity, fertility, and purity), the groom hangs a pendant of gold around the neck of his bride, and the couple walks around a sacred fire. Guests present gifts of cash in a wedding card, or a useful household item.

Births and Deaths

For Hindus, there is a period of confinement after birth of between four and six weeks, but visitors can come to offer congratulations while the mother and child are in the hospital or at home. There is usually a name-giving ceremony halfway through the confinement period.

Funerals among Hindus are a male affair. Family, friends, and colleagues can pay their respects before the cremation. Only men attend the cremation, and the mourning period can last for up to six weeks.

CHRISTIAN DAYAKS AND OTHERS

The Christian populations of Malaysia, comprising some Chinese communities, Eurasians, and the non-Malay indigenous peoples of the peninsula and the Malaysian Borneo states, follow the Christian calendar, including the Christmas celebrations. Meals accompanying Christian weddings and other receptions are either banquet-style in a restaurant or held at the home of parents or family. Christmas is the time of year for the Christian communities to provide an open house; this conforms to the general Malaysian custom of open house, and it tends to replace the traditional Christmas family meal. Christmas Eve is reserved for Midnight Mass, which is followed by a family supper. The religious element of the wedding is conducted in church or chapel. There are also Easter celebrations and observances; one of the most important is held at St. Peter’s Church in Malacca.

In Sarawak the native celebration of Gawai Dayak takes place in late May–early June, when there is much feasting and drinking, including spirit and beer made from rice and palm wine. Dancing and cultural performances are held in local longhouses decorated with flags and woven cloths. In urban areas, public cultural performances are held, as well as a beauty pageant to select the harvest festival queen. In effect, it marks the end of the agricultural year with the completion of the rice harvest and a thanksgiving to gods and spirits. In Sabah the equivalent is the Kadazan-Dusun harvest festival (Pesta Kaamatan) held throughout May. Again, dancing and feasting are the major activities, as well as buffalo races, games, competitions, and a beauty pageant (Unduk Ngadau).

SPIRITS ALL AROUND

With the introduction of the major world religions to Malaysia, and during the process of conversion, the local people retained and adapted their preexisting beliefs in spirits and deities—referred to in the technical literature as “animism,” or “folk/popular religion.” “Superstition” is a misleading term. Even devout believers in Islam or Christianity might still believe in the power and influence of the spirit world, and in any case, in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Chinese religion there is room for various kinds of benevolent ancestral and guardian spirits as well as those, like ghosts, that may bring harm to humans. Spiritual power may therefore reside in places, buildings, or objects, such as treasured heirlooms. Malaysians may still believe in the power of spells, love potions, charms, and amulets, and there are traditional practitioners who may be consulted in such matters as illness, spiritual afflictions, augury, and fortunes. This is especially so among the indigenous populations of Malaysian Borneo, where harvest festivals are also intended to give thanks to the rice spirits and deities for a good harvest. You might even see a spirit house outside a Chinese dwelling or business premises.

A Dusun priestess performs a ritual to appease the guardian sprit of Mount Kinabalu after an earthquake.

CHAPTER FOUR

MEETING THE MALAYSIANS

FRIENDSHIP

Malaysians are generally hospitable, polite, and welcoming. However, it will usually take some time to make lasting friendships. Family ties are given priority in Malaysian society, and they provide a wide circle of support. Friends are therefore of rather less importance, though Malaysians tend to have a large number of casual acquaintances. As with family relationships, close and genuine friendships, like kinship ties, are based on mutual reciprocity and entail obligations to support and assist in times of need. They are also maintained by periodic gift giving.

Keep in mind that religious requirements affecting such things as diet and social relationships for Muslims may make it difficult for some non-Muslims to form very close bonds with them. It is perhaps easier to socialize with Chinese, Indian, and Dayak companions where a relaxing drink in a bar, club, or restaurant is permitted. Nevertheless, among all communities socializing with friends tends to take place outside the home, given the modest price of meals, the great range of cuisine available, and the fact that the warm evenings enable people to eat and entertain outdoors, in restaurants, hotels, cafés, and other eating places. For professional men from all ethnic groups such venues as the golf club or sports club on weekends are very popular, as is a shared meal or refreshments together after work.

GENERAL ETIQUETTE AND TOPICS TO AVOID

As we have already seen in general terms, the art and etiquette of social intercourse are considerably more important in Malaysia than in much of the West. The Western stress on individual rights and individualism contrasts with the greater social awareness and sense of community of Malaysians. Do not be fooled by things that look familiar to you and by the cosmopolitan and modern Malaysian who speaks fluent English and has been educated in the West. Deep-seated cultural differences remain. Also be careful of what you say about Malaysia and its history. Don’t criticize the country’s politics, economic system, or transportation system, or compare it unfavorably with your own. Privately Malaysians might agree with you, but they have been brought up in an independent, rapidly changing, and forward-looking country to which they have great loyalty, and they do not wish to be openly criticized or reminded of problems. Britons who think Malaysia was better under colonialism, and who wish to say so, should also think again! Overall, one should not be seen as interfering, especially in the political field.

Malaysia’s ethnic relations have been a constant social and political preoccupation, and the foreign visitor should be wary about commenting on this aspect of present-day Malaysia. One particularly sensitive issue is that of intermarriage between ethnic groups, given that if a non-Muslim marries a Muslim then by law he or she will have to convert to Islam. Malaysians can sometimes be outspoken about such issues and about their society and their politics, but this does not give overseas visitors the right to do the same. The best advice is to be circumspect, but also to take a positive interest in local customs, cuisine, and language, and to accept hospitality. To break the ice with your Malaysian hosts, and especially the Malay community, a few words of the national language can help to build trust and closer relationships.

GOOD AND BAD MANNERS

The ways in which people move, conduct themselves, and use facial and bodily expressions are partly culturally determined and express either good manners or uncouth behavior. The principles of consensus, harmony, and control are also associated with deportment and dress. In Malaysia it is not polite to point to or beckon someone with the index finger, or snap one’s fingers at someone; nor should one point at animals. The accepted way is to point with the thumb, bending it slightly, with the fingers folded into the palm. A person can be summoned by holding the hand out, palm downward, and moving the fingers together toward the body. In short, one gestures discreetly with the hand and not in a pointed or direct way.

Don’t behave in an impatient, annoyed, or aggressive manner. Don’t stand in a swaggering way, with hands on hips. Casual touching in public between members of the opposite sex is best avoided, as is any kind of kissing. Nevertheless young Malaysians of the same sex sometimes walk together arm-in-arm, and sometimes young people of the opposite sex hold hands. As a foreign visitor, when walking out in a crowd, it’s always best to keep your hands close to yourself, holding in your garments. Bumping into or brushing against people is not appreciated. These rules may not be rigorously observed when people are trying to get on to a crowded bus or train.

At formal gatherings in Malay and Indian houses you might find that men and women are separated, and you will be shown your appropriate place. Men will normally be seated in a front reception area, and the women in an inner room. When sitting, don’t fold or cross your legs and point your foot at anyone, or show anyone the soles of your feet or shoes, which is considered rude. It is best to keep both feet firmly on the ground. If you have to sit on the floor in Malay-style do not stick your legs straight out in front of you. Women especially should try to sit with both legs tucked to the side, left or right, with feet pointing away from guests or hidden under the hem of their skirt. Men may be permitted to sit cross-legged. Do not kneel or squat. Kneeling is used for an act of prayer, not on social occasions.

Finally, the head is considered a sacred or spiritual part of the body and should not be touched. A person’s soul or a concentration of spiritual essence is thought to reside there and this may well derive from long-established folk beliefs that predated the introduction of Buddhism and Islam to the region. In any case it is a very general belief in Southeast Asia, found across a range of cultures and religions. You may think it helpful to brush an insect from someone’s head, but don’t do so. Don’t pat a child’s or a toddler’s head or ruffle their hair. You shouldn’t in any case touch or kiss someone else’s child.

If you are visiting a Malaysian at home, slip your shoes off before entering, unless you are told otherwise. Even if your host does not insist it will be appreciated if you do remove your shoes.

DRESS

It is an obvious point, but worth emphasis. The foreign visitor should always attempt to dress conservatively—unless one is on the beach, at a tourist hotel, or involved in a sporting activity or forest trekking. In major towns and tourist spots, flesh-revealing attire for women might not provoke much overt attention (and does not excite a great deal of attention in Kuala Lumpur), but remember that Malaysia is a Muslim country, and especially in smaller places and rural areas, where one is likely to find many more Malay residents, dressing immodestly is not advised. A Muslim woman covers her head, arms, and legs. The foreign female visitor who exposes too much of the body, legs, midriff, shoulders, and back, or wears very tight-fitting clothes, may cause embarrassment to her hosts and, potentially, to herself.

In the humid tropics the general rule is to dress comfortably in light, usually loose-fitting, cotton clothing. For business meetings or any formal occasion or appointment, a lightweight dark or grey suit and a long-sleeved shirt and tie are appropriate for a man; rolled-up shirt sleeves should be avoided. For a woman, a smart blouse and knee-length skirt, a suit, or a long-sleeved dress are all suitable, though not with low necklines; trousers for women are increasingly seen, but may not always be appropriate, depending on the occasion. For attendance at special events such as weddings or a reception, the recommended dress is usually indicated on the invitation card.

For evening wear, a restaurant meal, a special occasion, or a wedding feast it might be specified that men can wear a cotton batik shirt. These are usually brightly colored and elaborately patterned. If you intend to stay for a while in the region or visit regularly it might be worth purchasing a few shirts. They are very comfortable and versatile in tropical climes. Neither men nor women should wear all-black attire at Chinese New Year celebrations: black is associated with death. Nor should you wear all black at a Chinese wedding. Lighter suits for men and light-colored or patterned dresses and skirts for women are appropriate.

GREETINGS

Because respect and honor are accorded to older people, you should greet and introduce yourself to them first. Do not stand back and expect them to come to you. Good manners and deference to senior people is very important. However, women are not normally given precedence in a sequence of introductions.

There are various traditional ways of greeting in Malaysia. A vigorous, pumping handshake, designed to demonstrate confidence and strength, is inappropriate, as is shoulder- or back-slapping, and arm- and elbow-grabbing. Embraces and kissing, however affectionate, informal, and friendly we might wish to be, are not advisable, and hand-kissing is certainly out. Some young Malaysian urbanites are now bucking the trend and have adopted Western modes of greeting, including the peck on the cheek and the embrace. Observe carefully what the local conventions are and follow others. Urbanized Malays, both men and women, may well shake hands with you, but this is usually quite a gentle handshake, more of a brief and light touch than a clasp. A woman may not offer her hand to be shaken, in which case a nod or a slight bow would be in order.

Malays might offer a traditional greeting—the salam. To respond properly you stretch out both hands and lightly touch both hands offered by your host; sometimes a fleeting touch of the fingertips is all that is required. You then withdraw your hands and bring them both to your heart or the lower part of your face. Using both hands shows respect or deference to someone who, for example, is senior or of higher status. Between equals the salam is sometimes performed with one hand, the right hand.

Chinese Malaysians will usually shake hands, either between members of the same gender or between men and women, and they may incline their heads a little on first meeting. Indian men and women also commonly conform to the Western style of shaking hands. However, the Indian traditional greeting between men and women, which is also very common in Thailand, is for each person to put his or her palms together in a prayer position with the hands to the chest and a slightly bowed head. A little practice is all that is needed and once you get into the mode it is a most endearing and heart-warming greeting.

Malaysians also smile a lot, as do Southeast Asians in general. It is “The Land of Smiles.” You should do so too, especially when you are greeting them and introducing yourself. But beware: smiles can mean different things. A wide grin is not appropriate.

FORMS OF ADDRESS

Personal Pronouns

Malaysians tend not to use the term “you,” if possible, and prefer to use a title or personal name. They are always mindful of the importance of establishing and maintaining culturally proper relations, which are directly expressed in forms of address. Once you know someone well, it may be appropriate to use their personal name, but using a title might still be preferred.

There are four words for “you” in Malay—anda, saudara, kamu, and engkau. The formal personal address for an outsider is usually anda, but a more informal usage, such as for small children or someone you know quite well, is kamu or engkau. Someone of similar age and status might also be addressed as anda or saudara.

The usual convention for addressing a senior person who requires respect is to call them Puan (lady) or Tuan (man). You may hear Cik for a young unmarried woman, though this is now considered rather old-fashioned, and Encik for a young man. Puan can also be used as a respectful form of address for unmarried women. Tuan is also a term of address that was used during the colonial period for a “white” or European man, while Mem was used for a woman.

Kinship

If there is a relationship that is neither too formal nor too informal, kinship terms may be used in addressing someone. For those in the senior generation Datuk (grandfather) and Nenek (grandmother), Pakcik (uncle) and Makcik (aunt) are appropriate, or Abang (elder brother) and Kakak (elder sister). For those of the younger generation Adik (younger brother or sister) is probably the most suitable term. But, given the pervasiveness of kinship ties and the Malaysian preoccupation with family, you might find yourself addressed by such kinship terms as “Uncle” or “Auntie,” for example, in any circumstances. They are especially useful for people who are uncertain about your personal names, titles, or marital status.

Status and Hierarchy

The use of terms to refer to someone’s status or occupation is most common—Professor, Dokter, Guru (teacher), Dr. Gigi (dentist), for example. A male schoolteacher is usually referred to as Cikgu, short for Encik guru. Be especially aware of a person’s professional or honorific titles. Usually the most senior title takes precedence.

Malay society was traditionally strongly hierarchical, with a complex list of titles and statuses, and remains so to a large extent today; the immigrant communities have also been partially drawn into this system. Its complexities will provide you with hours of interest and fascination. It also embodies a whole host of requirements relating to appropriate behavior, etiquette, and forms of address, and it is therefore worth providing a little detail on this aspect of Malaysian culture.

Royal families, governors, and the federal authorities bestow honors and titles on deserving subjects. Royalty and the hereditary nobility also carry titles, sometimes an extended list of them. Royal status is indicated by such titles as Sultan, Raja, Yang DiPertuan Besar, and Sultanah, Raja Perempuan, and Tengku Ampuan. The King, should you chance to be introduced to him, is, perhaps unexpectedly, referred to as His Majesty, though in Malay the honorific is a little more elaborate—Duli Yang Maha Mulia Seri Paduka Baginda (literally “The King who is made Supreme Ruler”), or His Royal Highness (Duli Yang Maha Mulia). His consort carries the same honorifics, though her title or rank is Raja Permaisuri Agong.

Other royal titles embrace crown princes, their consorts, other princes and princesses, titled royalty, and other members of the royal family. A good guide to royal status beyond the Sultan and Sultanah for princes and princesses is the use of the title Tengku/Tunku or Raja. Be aware that the formal mode of address to rulers, their consorts, and the crown princes is Tuanku; for consorts of crown princes Ku Puan, though for all others it is usually Tengku/Tungku.

There are variations between the different Malay states in titles or ranks and, because it comprised several subunits that were amalgamated, the state of Negeri Sembilan has its own titular system with the sultan styled Yang Di Pertuan Besar and his consort Tunku Ampuan, and there are four potential heirs apparent who are four senior members of the royal family each carrying their own title; other variations are seen in the designation of the heir apparent, which, in Johor, Kelantan, and Pahang is Tengku/Tunku Mahkota, in Kedah, Perak, Perlis, and Selangor, Raja Muda, and in Terengganu Yang DiPertuan Muda. The delightful subtleties of the Perak royal system and succession, where there are six designated princely titles and where the eldest son of a sultan does not automatically succeed to his father’s position, defy simple explanation. The four states (Malacca, Penang, Sarawak, and Sabah) without a sultan have a governor styled Yang DiPertua Negeri and addressed as Tuan Yang Terutama, as are ambassadors and high commissioners. His consort carries her own title and name but has the honorific Yang Amat Berbahagia.

One of the most common conferred titles is Datuk (a title received from the federal government and state governors) and Dato’ (a title conferred by royalty) for a man, and Datin, for a woman. If a woman does not hold a title in her own right she would be referred to as Tok Puan (wife of a Dato’/Datuk). There are also different grades of Datukship, including Patinggi, Seri, and Paduka. A Datin Paduka can hold the title in her own right, but she could also be the wife of a Datuk Paduka. Higher titles such as Tan Sri (for men) and Puan Sri (for women), and Tun for a man and Toh Puan for the wife of a Tun should also be noted and used. They are broadly equivalent to the English “Sir” and “Lady.”

There are also honorifics appropriate for these various grades and for those appointed to senior government posts; for a Tun it is Yang Amat Berbahagia (The Most Fortunate), for a Tan Sri and Datuk/Dato’ it is Yang Berbahagia (The Fortunate), for senior politicians the correct form of address is Yang Amat Berhormat (The Most Honorable) and Yang Berhormat (The Honorable).

There are also hereditary titles associated with Islam used among Muslim Malays, Indians, and Arabs, such as Syed/Sayyid and Sharif (male) and Sharifah (female), indicating links with the Prophet. A Muslim man who has been on the pilgrimage to Mecca (haj) is entitled to be addressed as Haji, and a woman Hajjah. Other religious titles include Imam (leader of prayer at the mosque), Kadhi (registrar), Mufti (religious officer who also assists a judge), and Ustaz (a religious teacher).

PERSONAL AND FAMILY NAMES

Malay (and Muslim Indian) personal names are mainly derived from Arabic, but the same name may be spelled in a variety of ways, for example, Mohamad, Mohammad, Muhammad, and Mohamed. In Malay society it is a person’s first name that should be used; for example, Rashid Abdullah or Rashid bin Abdullah is Rashid the son of Abdullah. He should be referred to and addressed as (Mr.) Rashid, or the equivalent in Malay, Encik Rashid, if a young man, and Tuan Rashid, if an older man.

A wife has her own name, and does not usually take her husband’s name, but this is changing. Rahmah Talib, or in its full form Rahmah binte/binti Talib, is Rahmah the daughter of Talib. She could be referred to as Puan (Mrs.) Rahmah. However, things are becoming a little more confusing now in that she might be married to a man called Talib, and using his name. She would then be referred to as Puan Talib. Careful questioning is needed to establish the exact status of the name she is using.

Nothing in the labyrinth of Malay names and titles is straightforward, and a further complication is that some Malays are referred to as Nik, Wan, and Megat, or Putri for a woman. Some Malays will use these as family names and would be addressed as Encik Nik, and so on. Others, however, use them as titles that have some connection to royalty through the maternal line, in which case it would be inappropriate to use Encik and one should address them instead by their title.

Among Chinese the first name in the sequence is the family name, so Tan Chee Beng is Mr. Tan, and his personal names are Chee Beng; he is not Mr Beng. His wife can be called Mrs. Tan, but she has her own family name: Tai Ching Ling, for example. She could be referred to as Madam Tai, her first names being Ching Ling. Christian Chinese will commonly have a Christian name and Chinese personal and family names, and may be referred to, for example, as Michael Chen. Chinese names may also be rendered differently according to dialect so that a Mr. Goh can also be Wu or Ngu.

Most Indians do not have surnames as such. For example, a man referred to as B. Siva or Siva B. would be Mr. Siva, this being his personal name. The B. stands for his father’s name, Bhaskaran. Officially he would be referred to as Siva s/o (son of) Bhaskaran. His wife Rajeswary could be referred to as Mrs. Siva, but she could also be called Madam Rajeswary. Some northern Indians do have family names, and use them, and there are Christian Indians who have Christian names. There are also those who under Portuguese influence in such places as Goa and Sri Lanka acquired such names as Da Cunha, De Alwis, Rozario, and Santa Maria.

Sikh names are very distinctive in that the gender indicator for a male is Singh, used with a personal name such as Ranjit, thus Ranjit Singh. A female is indicated by the name Kaur, with a personal name such as Amarjit, thus Amarjit Kaur. A married woman may use her own names, or is sometimes referred to as Mrs. Singh, which is, in effect, a contradiction in terms.

Finally, many Dayak groups of East Malaysia are Christians, with Christian names, but they also have a personal Dayak name, which is often appended to the Christian name, for example Samuel Gana. Gana is not a surname, it is a given name. You may also find that Dayaks use a variant of the Malay form that is the personal name followed by the father’s personal name, so Jayum Jawan is Jayum the son of Jawan. He should properly be referred to as Jayum, not Jawan. Sometimes the Malay word anak, meaning “child,” is inserted, thus Jayum anak Jawan.

CHAPTER FIVE

THE MALAYSIANS AT HOME

HOUSING

There is a great variety of house styles in Malaysia, based on the different architectural designs and artistic traditions of the different ethnic groups, and also on regional variations in Malay and Dayak house forms. There are also many examples of modern built forms. Traditionally, and still in some rural areas today, Malays lived in houses raised on stilts or piles above the ground and made of wood, thatch, palm leaves, and bark. Openings such as windows, doors, and verandas, and the use of natural materials that “breathe,” demonstrate that these houses are designed to catch the breezes and allow a free flow of air. Stilted dwellings also provide protection against flood, extra storage space, and shelter for domestic animals. Even where the traditional design and layout remain, Malay housing is now more likely to comprise brick, concrete, tiles, glass, and plaster, though the raised brick house now provides convenient car-parking space below the living quarters. There is a great range of styles.

For the Chinese the traditional two-story terraced urban shop house was the norm; it can still be seen in most towns and cities. Business is conducted at the front of the premises, which opens on to a covered walkway connecting the separate houses, and the building then stretches back to contain the living quarters of the extended family on the ground and first floors. Indian merchants also usually occupied some of this shop house space in towns. In Malaysian Borneo, on the other hand, you can still see traditional Dayak longhouses, which in effect accommodate a whole village, the separate families living in terraced compartments raised on stilts, under one roof, and connected by a covered veranda which serves as the village street. Again, these longhouses are increasingly being built with modern materials, or are replaced with single family dwellings.

A traditional Bugis house at the Sultan Alam Shah Museum, Shah Alam, Selangor.

British colonial architecture often adapted traditional local designs, though houses were usually constructed from brick and plaster. Many grand detached colonial houses and mansions set in spacious grounds in secluded suburbs or in landscaped estates on the edge of town and city centers have survived and are now the homes of wealthy Malaysians.

In towns and cities and in the rapidly expanding suburbs high-rise apartments and condominiums are found increasingly, as well as modern terraced and detached housing with gardens and undercover car parking. Some have been influenced by Western modernist architectural forms. However, certain of the design features of traditional Malay or Chinese housing may be retained, with distinctive roof forms, verandas, arches, and pillars. One also still sees in both urban and rural areas the dilapidated housing of the poor, reminiscent of the shanties and squatter settlements of the developing world. As Malaysia has modernized, makeshift housing is less evident now, and government authorities have also demolished most of the unsightly urban settlements and rehoused the residents in public and community housing schemes.

Aerial view of high-rise apartments in Cyberjaya in southern Selangor.

FAMILY LIFE

As we have seen, Malaysians are very family oriented. Children are cherished, and large families are common, though some couples practice family planning. A household, aside from mother, father, and children, will often contain a grandparent or two, and sometimes an unmarried aunt or uncle. A cousin might be staying in order to go to the local school or to work locally. With the demands of urban living, however, it seems that the extended family is gradually giving way to the nuclear family among younger, more socially and physically mobile Malaysians, but support from the wider family is still available and visits from other family members frequent. Although working mothers may hire domestic help for child care, family members are still usually preferred for this. Preschool children are cosseted, and always the center of adult attention and interest.

As children reach an age when they can be given greater responsibility they are also frequently harged with looking after younger siblings and given household chores. They may also be called on to ssist in the family business, particularly in the case f small Chinese and Indian concerns and Malay rural enterprises. This is all part of the set of social obligations between the junior and senior generations.

EDUCATION

The emphasis that the Malaysian government has placed on education, especially since the launch of the New Economic Policy in 1970, has resulted in most families from all ethnic groups devoting time and resources to ensuring that their children receive support at school, college, and university. Middle-class Malaysians are preoccupied with the importance of giving their children a good start in life, but these aspirations are also being strongly expressed among the urban and rural working classes. No particular distinction is made between boys and girls, and increasing numbers of young women are now following courses in secondary and higher education. Islam is not a barrier to female education in Malaysia. Indeed, in universities women outnumber men and comprise more than 60 percent of enrolments. The federal government provides free education at both primary and secondary levels; primary education is compulsory from the age of six and older family members willingly provide support for younger relatives to enable them to complete their studies successfully. The medium of instruction is Bahasa Malaysia, but the government is increasingly reintroducing English into the curriculum, especially in science teaching. There is a good range of private and international schools for expatriate children, but most go up only to primary level, and these tend to be oversubscribed. Therefore, it is important to get your child’s name on the list and to reserve a place.

Graduation day at the university in Sintok, Kedah.

In 2003 the Malaysian government introduced a National Service Program for young men and women from all ethnic groups who reached the age of seventeen. By 2019 the program had become fully optional.

SOCIAL MEDIA AND DATING

Social media and Internet dating sites have also begun to change the ways in which some, but not all, young Malaysians find a partner. Young Muslim women are generally closely overseen by their parents and immediate family, and traditional demands on modesty in appearance and behavior, and on premarital chastity, continue to be highly valued. They may be wary of crossing boundaries when they are using social media and messaging. There are greater degrees of freedom among non-Muslims. Nevertheless, there are still several ways for young Muslims to get together, not only through social media and messaging but through such dating sites as Muslima, Malaysian Muslim Match, and Teman Hidupku. There is also a number of general dating apps for young Malaysians, one of the most popular being MalaysianCupid (see page 195, Useful Apps).

MARRIAGE

For all young Malaysians marriage is still a valued institution. The practice of young people living together out of wedlock is generally frowned upon by parents and the wider family. However, with the expansion of higher education and training for men and women, more mobile lifestyles, leisure pursuits, and the opportunities to meet and interact online with members of the opposite sex, there is an increasing tendency toward later marriage and childbearing. A successful marriage in the eyes of the family is when children are born. Childless couples usually seek to adopt, and in fact often adopt a child from close relatives. A young married couple does not necessarily establish an independent household right away and may live with the parents of either the husband or the wife for a period of time. Aging or widowed parents might move into the household of a married son or daughter to ensure that they are looked after in their remaining years, and they help with children and household tasks in return for this support.

The Department of Statistics Malaysia reported that in 2018 the total number of marriages in Malaysia was 206,253, an increase of 1.2 percent from 2017. An almost 2 percent increase in Muslim marriages compensated for a fall of around half-a-percent in non-Muslim marriages. Most marriages are contracted in the twenty-five to twenty-nine years age range. The median marriage age for males is twenty-eight and for females twenty-six. In 1970 the average age of marriage was just over twenty-two years. Most women sought financial stability and the fulfilment of marital responsibilities, and men, especially Muslim men, were concerned about their partner’s possible sexual infidelity. Non-Muslim marriages and divorces are covered by civil legislation while Muslim marriages and divorces fall under Islamic family law. Interethnic marriages fell by just over 9 percent in 2018.

Divorces remained roughly the same between 2017 and 2018 at 50,356, with a slight increase in Muslim separations compensated by a slight decrease in non-Muslim divorce. There is much less stigma attached to divorce now, in that personal happiness is emphasized over marital unhappiness. Major factors in this change in values are that women, including Muslim women, have become much more empowered; there are now many more two-income families, with graduate females working in the professional sector; and they wish to exercise control over their own careers and decisions. Yet, male views have been more resistant to change, and even when their partner works outside the home, men often expect women to shoulder the main domestic burdens of housework and childcare. From the woman’s perspective this is one of the reasons underlying decisions to seek divorce, as well as the failure of some men to fulfil their financial and other responsibilities. Women are also delaying having children, using birth control and marrying later. In 2018 the number of babies born per couple continued to decline to an average of 1.8 births, a noticeable change from an average of 4.9 in 1970.

DAILY ROUTINE

For most Malaysians the day starts early, when it is still relatively cool. Many schools start at 7:30 a.m. through to 12:30 or 1.00 p.m., and government offices, commercial, and business premises also open early, at 8:00 to 8:30 a.m.; they shut for lunch at some time between 12 noon and 2:00 p.m., and then go on until 4:30 or 5:00 p.m., Mondays to Fridays, though on Fridays they usually shut for Friday prayers from 12.15 (in some cases 1:00) to 2.45 p.m.

The Malaysian Employment Act specifies a 48-hour working week, with a maximum of 8 hours a day. Offices and businesses are usually closed on Saturdays. Private companies are usually open between 9:00 a.m. and 5:00 or 6:00 p.m., and are open for a half day on Saturdays between 9:00 a.m. and 1:00 p.m. On Friday there is also some variation in hours when Muslims go to the mosque for prayers. In Terengganu, Kelantan, and Kedah the Muslim weekly calendar is followed in government offices, banks, and some retail outlets; they close on Friday and Saturday and open on Sunday, with Thursday, in some cases, as a shorter day. Banks are usually open from 10:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m., and 9:30 to 11:30 a.m. on Saturdays. ATMs are plentiful. For shopping, store hours are very generous; department stores and shopping malls usually open from 10:00 a.m. to 10:00 p.m., though some smaller shops may open earlier and close by 7:00 p.m.

Therefore, the Malaysian family usually rises between 6:00 and 7:00 a.m. for breakfast at home. An alternative is to have breakfast on the way to work, in a coffee shop or at one of the roadside stalls, which are ready for business very early. In the busy urban conglomerations with all the problems of traffic jams, an early start is also a means to beat the traffic and avoid some delays. By 7:00 or 7:30 a.m. roads are already crowded; local fruit and vegetable, meat, and fish markets and stalls are open; women, and sometimes men, are taking their children to school, and looking for fresh food for the family’s meals.

In rural areas people’s lives are organized around the demands of the agricultural cycle and the climate. To avoid too much exposure to the heat of the day agricultural and estate workers start even earlier, at about 6:00 a.m., with several short breaks during the morning, until lunchtime. They may also take a longer break during the early afternoon, and then work later in the afternoon and early evening when it is cooler.

With the expansion of the economy many more women now work outside the home, though the numerous small family retail businesses, particularly Chinese shops, require husbands, wives, and children after school hours to be available on the premises.

Most offices, modern shops, and cars are equipped with air-conditioning (“air-con”), so people are in an artificially cool environment for most of the day. For those unused to working in hot, humid climes this provides a comfortable environment that prevents you from becoming sleepy later in the day. You can still also see traditional ceiling fans, and other places will have free-standing electric fans.

Malaysians often take a brief mid-morning break, with a longer break at lunchtime. Most premises with Muslim employees will provide prayer rooms for the noon and mid-afternoon prayer times. The midday break in Malaysia is usually a leisurely affair, lasting for about one to one-and-a-half hours. Workers often bring their own packed lunch, or buy something from a local shop or stall and take their break on the premises, or go to a cafeteria or other public space to relax and chat. Given the wide availability of cheap, wholesome food with basic dishes of rice or noodles, soup, curried or stir-fried meat, or fish and vegetables, many people pop into a local coffee shop, restaurant, or food court for a hot meal with coffee or tea.

A Bit Too Cool!

On occasion, the Malaysians’ enthusiasm for “aircon” gets the better of them; some are so used to working in a bracing atmosphere that they turn the temperature down even further. While working in an office or sitting in a restaurant or cinema you may find yourself reaching for a jacket as goose bumps begin to appear!

By mid-afternoon the heat and humidity outside can be quite debilitating. The working day usually finishes at about 4:00 to 4:30 p.m. for those in the public sector. Private establishments often go on until 5:00 p.m., and retail outlets and eating places much longer. Some workers go off with colleagues and friends for a drink or snack, but usually people are at home by about 7:00 p.m. for their evening meal and a relaxing evening, watching television, reading, or playing games with the children. In Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley traveling in the “rush hour” from 4:00 through 7:00 p.m. should be avoided if possible.

EXPATRIATE LIVING

Foreign business and commercial people, and others such as overseas government contract workers, teachers, and lecturers, may be posted longer term to Malaysia. Most expatriates live in the major cities and towns, particularly Kuala Lumpur, Klang, Penang, Johor Bahru, Kuching, and Kota Kinabalu. There are few difficulties in these locations. The company or employer will usually provide or help to find accommodation, and may give a housing allowance. Rented accommodation is normally of a good standard, with air-conditioning (a must), well-appointed kitchens, modern bathrooms with shower, and fully furnished. It will probably be an apartment in a new high-rise development or a semidetached or detached house in a conveniently located and well-tended suburb. Many apartment complexes have a leisure area with a swimming pool.

You will also invariably share your apartment or house, however modern, with teeming insect life. Sprays and slow-burning repellents keep much of this at bay. Ants tend to get everywhere, but try to keep cockroaches out of the kitchen. Don’t be alarmed when small lizards (geckos) scamper over your floors, walls, and ceilings.

Household Help

Domestic help is easily available and reasonably priced. You may inherit a domestic helper from the previous occupant, or you can ask friends and colleagues. Agencies, however, are now the main method of recruitment, and wages and conditions of service are set down in advance. Depending on your status, salary, and the size of your house and garden, you may engage more than one domestic helper, a gardener, and a driver.

Use written references as well as word-of-mouth to check someone out, and interview them, but it can be a bit hit-and-miss. Check the passport and identity card of your prospective employee, and establish their religion and any requirements that this entails. You will be looking for honesty, discretion, experience, and conscientiousness. Most household help comprises migrant workers from the Philippines (who usually speak at least some English) and Indonesia (who often don’t); sometimes they are unmarried girls, who may need close supervision and training, sometimes married women with children left back home. Migrant workers will usually live in, and most accommodation will have rooms for them. If you are employing a local maid, find out all you can about her background and personal circumstances; again, depending on where her home area is, she may need to live in; those who live close by usually come in daily.

From the outset be clear about what you expect of your household helper, and what free time she is allocated. A domestic servant or maid (amah) usually helps with household shopping (if you prefer to shop for yourself there are numerous supermarkets, specialty shops, and fruit and vegetable markets and stalls). You may want her to cook, or at least prepare the food. In this climate, laundry and ironing are major tasks for which help is worth considering. You may also need help with child care. Training and supervision will be necessary until you are satisfied that your helper has enough experience.

Keeping in mind the cultural context, you will get the best out of your helpers if you treat them fairly, politely, and with consideration rather than barking orders at them or scolding them for wrongdoing.

If you are posted to Malaysia, the simple and obvious advice is to seek help and information from others with experience of expatriate life there. Also, look at the Web sites and blogs about expatriate living—they make fascinating reading.

CHAPTER SIX

TIME OUT

LEISURE

With their large number of relatives around them, on almost immediate call, Malaysians used to spend most of their spare time with, and have most of their entertainment provided by, the family. There always seemed to be a birth, wedding, funeral, or other rite of passage to attend, or some other special event—securing an educational qualification, promotion at work, or settling into a new home—to celebrate. These, in addition to the weekly and calendrical round of community religious events, ceremonies, and festivals, have absorbed much leisure interest and time.

As we have seen, socializing with friends and visitors usually takes place outside the home. The wealthy, with spacious living quarters, may entertain at home, but for most Malays, who already have a houseful of people, it is much more convenient to meet with friends, acquaintances, and foreign visitors for dinner in a nearby restaurant.

The emphasis on family-oriented activities means that the Western notion of leisure, based much more on packaged entertainment, is rather less important in Malaysia. However, with increasing affluence and the emergence of a substantial multiethnic middle class, there is a growing demand, especially among young people, for commercially organized entertainments such as theater, concerts, live music, and film; large modern multiscreen cinemas (cineplexes) are found in most sizeable urban areas. Dining out—in modern restaurants, themed eating houses, bars (though usually not for Muslims), and sports clubs that serve a wide range of cuisines—has become a popular pastime. For the young professional middle classes in major urban centers socializing with work colleagues is often not confined to weekends, but also to some weekdays after office hours. Eating out is a cultural institution in Malaysia. For special occasions and for those with Malaysian dollars in their pocket or a plastic card with ample credit then an upmarket eating place may well be chosen, but there are so many good value-for-money restaurants, that they can easily find somewhere to suit their pocket.

Affluent Malaysians, with increasing vacation time, as well as weekends and public holidays, are also traveling more; domestic tourism is booming, with sightseeing, shopping, and relaxation at beach resorts or national parks, forest reserves, and wildlife sanctuaries. Weekend breaks to vacation resorts are very popular, and Malaysian tourists are now seeking out other destinations. Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and China are especially attractive. There is also still interest in traditional Asian art and performance, such as Chinese opera, Malay shadow puppets, martial arts, Qu’ran recitals, and dance routines such as joget, which are regularly shown on television.

There is a wide range of leisure activities available, aside from watching television, surfing the Internet, and playing computer games. Eating out, shopping, and sports are paramount. If there is a national sport that commands an inordinate amount of attention—aside from badminton and table tennis, in which Malaysians excel—it is watching English premiership football (soccer) and, of course, playing football. There are vigorous state and local level football leagues. Traditionally Malaysians have not been particularly attracted to picnics at beauty spots or beaches, or trekking through jungles and uplands, though this is changing.

In cities and towns, and especially in Kuala Lumpur and Penang, there is a nightlife, bar, and club culture, and often hotels with a cabaret act, usually with a resident Philippine band. It is primarily the Chinese and some of the Indian community who take advantage of these. The main gambling resort in the Genting Highlands is frequented by local Chinese, Singaporeans, and tourists from other parts of Asia and beyond. Casinos do not attract the Malay community, and though non-Muslims do gamble online, it is prohibited in Malaysian law.

THE FOREIGN COMMUNITY

There is much for the expatriate and the short-term visitor to Malaysia to do, quite apart from sightseeing. There are various national associations with their own club facilities, mainly based in Kuala Lumpur, though there are also some in Penang—American, British, German, Italian, French, and Japanese. They provide a focus for social activities, offer advice and support in looking for accommodation, schools, and domestic help, and produce their own newsletters and bulletins. There are also numerous clubs that you can join—golf, tennis, swimming, football, cricket, tennis, squash, fitness, bridge—the choice is wide. The hot, sunny weather means that outdoor sports can be played all year-round, though heat and humidity can take their toll on the fair-skinned foreigner who is not used to vigorous exercise in such an environment. To discuss business affairs the golf club is a frequent venue, and to get access to a swimming pool, in the absence of good municipal facilities, joining a club is essential. Sports, leisure, and fitness clubs are also ideal places to socialize with local people.

Much of the social service provision that is taken for granted in the West is undertaken by voluntary organizations and charities in Malaysia. Partners of those who have a work contract in Malaysia can find plenty to do in the areas of fund-raising, clerical support, teaching, training, working with deprived children and the disabled, and English-language teaching. Facilities for the pursuit of special interests are also numerous, with clubs and associations for music, opera, amateur dramatics, dance, art, needlework, and local history, among many others.

EATING OUT AND TABLE MANNERS

Eating is a major preoccupation in Malaysia, and you may need to watch your weight! It is worth bearing in mind that the climate is not conducive to vigorous and sustained outdoor walking and exercise, or, for some, even a more measured stroll, unless you are in air-conditioned facilities, so burning off calories may not be an easy option. Or you could just forget about fitness and weight and be prepared to feast on a wonderful range of cuisines. A common greeting or inquiry in Malay is Sudah makan? (Have you eaten?). Malaysians love the company, entertainment, and warmth that go with sharing a meal, and they will be especially pleased if they see that you enjoy their food and hospitality. The evening meal usually starts at about 7:00 or 7:30 p.m.

For the business visitor, sharing food with potential partners is a very important element in building a relationship. Expect an invitation, or several, to a good restaurant. Working breakfasts and lunches are increasingly common. The Chinese are particularly keen on business entertaining. But there is another dimension to eating to remember: food and cooking are part of culture, and, as we know, they give expression to religious differences. Food is therefore subject to various cultural requirements and restrictions.

Coffee Shops and Food Stalls

A common sight is the coffee shop (kedai kopi, and increasingly kopitiam), where breakfast is often taken before the start of the working day and where friends and colleagues can catch up on news and prepare for the day. There is nothing more pleasurable than a breakfast of freshly cooked noodles and seafood with a large mug of tea or coffee.

Just as ubiquitous is the food stall. These are located in the coffee shops, food hawker centers, and covered market areas, as well as on the open streets. They usually offer light snack meals: noodles, soups, rice porridge, dumplings, deep-fried cakes with or without meat, curries, Indian breads, and pancakes. Each stall specializes in a particular dish or set of dishes, with a separate stall (and fridge) serving drinks—tea and coffee in all their wonderful varieties, bottled drinks, and, for later in the day, beer (in the non-Muslim shops). You can also get rather more ample meals at lunchtime, and many of the food centers with their varieties of stalls are popular family attractions in the evenings. Generally, these stalls are clean, with good standards of hygiene, and excellent value. But for the first-time visitor it is sensible to be careful and to order cooked food rather than salads, and either hot or bottled drinks.

Enjoying the legendary street food in Kuala Lumpur’s Jalan Alor Night Market.

The Perfect Breakfast

One of my most treasured experiences is the early-morning Malay meal of nasi lemak, which I used to have with a friend on the outskirts of the city of Ipoh in Perak, sitting in the cool of the morning under a palm tree: rice garnished with spicy curried sauce (sometimes containing small pieces of beef, chicken, lamb, or squid), anchovies, peanuts, cucumber, and a sliced boiled egg. Another favorite was prawn soup with noodles (mee udang). My e-mails to my friend usually end “I’m missing breakfast under the tree.”

Chinese Food

It goes without saying that in a Chinese restaurant it is a useful skill to be able to use chopsticks, and at a Chinese banquet it is difficult to avoid this. Chinese food definitely tastes better eaten from chopsticks. ut it is not absolutely essential, and you can usually reach for the spoon and fork, utensils that you would normally use in Malay and Indian restaurants. Remember that with chopsticks the bottom stick remains fixed and the top one is mobile and has all the hard work to do. Don’t try to pierce food with a chopstick and try not to get your sticks crossed. When you pause between courses, or have finished eating, the ends of the chopsticks that go in the mouth should always be placed away from you, either on a small stand or holder provided, or on your side plate. It is acceptable occasionally to bring the rice bowl from the table to your mouth and, using your chopsticks, gently to push or slide the rice into your mouth.

The Chinese soup spoon, usually of porcelain, is very versatile and can be used for scooping up virtually anything. If you have something to dispose of (bones, gristle, or something that you have placed in your mouth but find difficult to swallow) a side plate is normally available for the purpose. If you are not provided with one, then politely ask for one, or place the unwanted items on the rim of your main plate.

You will also usually have a small dish, or two dishes, for vinegar or soya and, if you wish, a mix of freshly chopped chilies. You dip pieces of meat and any other morsels into this for additional flavoring. Beware the small green and red chilies; they can be fiery. The larger green ones are milder, and delicious in vinegar. If you want more, ask for it. Your host will be delighted that you have an appetite and are enjoying the food, but at a banquet you can help yourself in any case.

Sometimes rice is served with the main dishes, or it may be the penultimate dish, followed by fresh fruit or other desserts, with ample supplies of Chinese tea, and beer if you wish. Expensive cognac or whiskey appear on special occasions.

Your host may place choice morsels of food on your plate at a first serving. This is a thoughtful gesture, so accept and eat them graciously. Refusing food has to be handled sensitively and diplomatically, and it is always best to try a little. Then, if you must, leave it on your side plate. Do not refuse outright.

Pace Yourself

A word of warning; unless you have a gargantuan appetite do not take too much food in the early courses of a Chinese banquet. Each course is delivered on a circular turntable and the diners sit around a circular table. You may be served with a first helping, and then help yourself from the turntable. There may be five courses for a modest meal, seven for something a little more special, and nine if very special. It is sometimes difficult to anticipate how many courses will be arriving.

Traditional Malay Food

In a traditional Malay or southern Indian setting you might be invited to eat with your fingers, or to be more precise the fingers of your right hand (the left hand for Muslims and Hindus is used for personal hygiene). Many Malaysians are happy to use either utensils or fingers: for a relaxing lunch at an everyday restaurant, and especially when rice with curry is served, they prefer to use their fingers, but at an evening meal in a restaurant often use a spoon and fork. Rice in particular is eaten with a spoon, not a fork. With Indian hosts you might not only be invited to take food with your fingers but also to eat from a banana leaf (which serves as a plate, and is not part of the meal).

You will invariably be supplied with a bowl of water or a water vessel (kendi) to wash or rinse your right hand. Tissues are usually provided as well, but, in some restaurants, you simply go to the nearest cold-water faucet and rinse your hands. Of course, you can carry your own tissues. Drinking glasses are placed to the left because you will make quite a mess if you try to eat and drink with your right hand.

With Malay and Indian hosts, you are unlikely to be served anything stronger than tea, coffee, or light fruit drinks, though some Indian hosts may offer alcohol. You must take note of Muslim dietary requirements, not only the absence of alcohol but also the prohibition against eating pork. Meat that can be eaten must be positively designated as halal (slaughtered in the manner prescribed by Muslim law). You will see signs in supermarkets, shops, and food outlets indicating whether the meat there is halal. It is unlikely that Muslims will go to Chinese restaurants if pork is served there and if the meat is not halal, though some Chinese restaurants serve food appropriate for Muslims and usually display large notices to inform their customers that they do so.

In mixed company it may become slightly trickier. Hindus and Sikhs do not eat beef. In these situations, chicken or lamb dishes are often safe bets, but some Indians are fully vegetarian, and others are vegetarians who will take milk products. This is now less of an issue for Western diners, with the increasing number who prefer a vegetarian lifestyle, and, in any case, there are many superb vegetarian restaurants in Malaysia.

Malay food is generally hotter or spicier than Chinese food, and closer to the Indian style, with a variety of curried and spiced dishes. For the foreign visitor accustomed to Indian curries, eating Malay food is not a problem. Common additions are fermented prawn paste, or belachan, turmeric, chili, cloves, anise, pepper, cumin, caraway, and fenugreek. Coconut milk is used copiously. If you are invited to eat out your host will order a variety of dishes with different degrees of “heat,” but will usually ask if you have favorite dishes and whether or not you eat spicy food. For someone who finds chili a problem, there are many mildly spiced and delicious meat, fish, and vegetable dishes to try. Do not assume that only one dish is for you; the idea is to take a little from a variety of dishes on offer.

If you are a guest, you would not be expected to pay, or to share the cost. The host takes care of the bill. You can reciprocate at some later date, but you should seek advice on where to take your guests, and ensure that you know what their religion is and the food permitted and forbidden to them. You might ask them to indicate their favorite restaurant before booking.

Remember that in Ramadan (Puasa), the Muslim fasting month, you would only be invited to a meal after sunset, and a business visitor should not expect to hold a meeting over lunch. At this time business meetings are best held in the morning, and office hours are usually adjusted; there is a shorter lunch break and earlier closing hours. It is not appropriate to eat or drink in the presence of someone who is fasting. In the few hours of early morning and evening, women are busy preparing food, and it is best not to call casually at a Muslim home during this time.

TIPPING

Many restaurants and hotels, especially if they take credit cards, add a 5 or 10 percent service charge to the bill, along with a 6 percent government tax. You can add something further if you have had really good service. If a service charge is not included, a 10 percent tip might be given. Small tips may be given to taxi and trishaw drivers, or the fare rounded up; hotel porters and other bag carriers may be given a few Malaysian dollars, but use your discretion.

A Rich and Varied Cuisine

If you like experimenting with food, you will have hours of enjoyment in Malaysia—and perhaps more hours of post-visit dieting. Many foreign visitors are already familiar with Malay sate/satay (skewered grilled meat with a dip of curried peanut sauce, and side relishes of cucumber and onion). The Chinese takeout version in Britain is often a curious adaptation of this dish. Then there is the favorite local breakfast dish of nasi lemak, and the popular evening dish rendang (usually beef long simmered in spices, chili, and coconut milk until relatively dry).

Chinese cuisine is now known the world over, and there are superb restaurants in Malaysia with excellent standards. For a lighter meal there are the many different varieties of noodles (mee) with soup, or Chinese snacks (dim sum)—dumplings, rolls, puffs filled with meat, prawns, and fish, and spicy spare ribs. For the gourmet, shark’s fin, turtle eggs (though there are increasing restrictions on these), sea cucumber, and bird’s nests are worth a taste. Try also Nonya-style (or Nyonya-Baba) cooking, characteristic of the long-settled Chinese communities of Penang and Malacca, which provides a delightful blend of Chinese and Malay cuisine, and has produced the delicious thick noodle soup cooked with coconut milk (laksa), either served in curried form or with sour fish.

Indian griddle cakes or pancakes (generally called roti) have to be tried; they come in all shapes, sizes, and textures, with different sauces. A favorite is roti chanai, a thin bread with pea or lentil curry sauce, washed down with “pulled tea” (teh tarik), a frothy, milky tea. For its enthusiasts this combination makes an excellent breakfast.

Not For the Fainthearted

The truly adventurous might be tempted by a Chinese menu that I recently sampled. Among the delights on offer—and I list them as they were written—were: potato and frog with rice, spice frog, steamed frog rice with lotus, frog rice with bamboo or wood cup, salt and pepper duck beak, pearl octopus, pig bowel with rice, hot pepper duck gizzard. You might also like to try a light snake soup, with an aperitif of snake gall and blood mixed with liquor.

Dining Etiquette

Most Malaysians are quite flexible and relaxed about table manners. The major concerns are the food and the company. However, apart from the tips given above, there are some other aspects of Asian-style eating that deserve a brief mention.

Soup and other liquids can be slurped: noisy eating is fine with Malaysians. If you want to remove an indigestible item of food from your mouth during the meal, do so with chopsticks, spoon, or fingers. It is unlikely that anyone will mind. Don’t be offended if someone burps at the end of the meal; it is not considered rude, but is a clear indication that the food has gone down well and been appreciated.

You may often see, especially in a Chinese restaurant, where there is no tablecloth and a surface that can be easily wiped over, that food remnants are simply placed on the table beside the plate. After a wonderful meal including a medley of chili crab, steamed fish in ginger and spring onion, shellfish with garlic, and fried chicken, the table will look like a battlefield, with empty shells, claws, fish and chicken bones, and other scraps scattered all around. All the signs of an excellent meal, greatly appreciated. You may well find that cats are in attendance, some rather scrawny and unkempt, wandering under tables and chairs and scavenging for leftovers.

Toothpicks are ubiquitous, and it seems quite natural to use them, even if you do not do so at home. You should place your other hand over your mouth to hide what you are doing.

It is wise to carry some lavatory paper with you. While some restrooms are clean and well equipped, others are not.

SHOPPING FOR PLEASURE

Malaysia is a shopper’s paradise. It is the ideal place to shop for a large range of consumer goods, at least in the main towns and cities of the peninsula. Sarawak and Sabah tend to be more expensive, but even so the advantageous exchange rates with US dollars and sterling mean that local prices are very attractive.

If you are a lazy shopper, for handicrafts you can go to the standard government craft centers, where you will find a good range—but at tourist prices. If you like to shop around, there are many small shops selling locally produced items, although you might have to bargain. Even so, prices are generally much more reasonable. Local goods to look out for are batiks, Selangor pewter, silver filigree jewelry, Malay silver and gold threaded woven textiles, woven cloths from Sarawak, and a range of indigenous crafts from Malaysian Borneo, including rattan baskets, wood carvings, and beadwork. Chinatowns can supply locally woven cloth, baskets, containers, and hats, and Indian shops are good for textiles in any material, including cotton and silk. There are also increasing amounts of highly priced “antique” crafted items on sale. Some of these might be genuine, but most of them are fakes, with special techniques applied to give the appearance of age; and if you think an item is locally made in Malaysia, beware, in that it may well have been made at lower cost in Indonesia.

In Kuala Lumpur the very touristy market in Chinatown at Petaling Street is worth a visit, as is the equally touristy and very colorful covered Central Market. Street markets and night bazaars (pasar malam) selling a wide range of consumer goods, local handicrafts, souvenirs, and food and drink are a common sight in Malaysian urban centers. There are the smarter shopping malls at KL City Center (Suria KLCC, Lot 10 at Bukit Bintang), and those who want a much wider choice and price range, with bargaining, should visit Sungei Wang Plaza in the main hotel area. For a mind-blowing shopping experience try the Megamall at Mid Valley City, Lingaran Syed Putra. These malls are usually open from 10:00 a.m. until 10:00 p.m. Duty-free shopping beyond airports requires a longer-distance trip to Langkawi or Labuan.

Malaysia, like other countries around the world, has experienced a boom in online shopping and in the provision of other services from clothes and fashion to fast-food delivery. You can go to Online Shopping Malaysia-Apps on Google Play, Google Store for Malaysia, and CurrenSeek and check the major shopping sites, which include Lazada, Shoppee, Fingo, Dahmakan, and foodpanda, among many others. Cash transactions are still very important in Malaysia, but increasingly, and particularly with the younger generation, online payments, and credit and payment cards are used relatively widely, and especially in the large urban centers of Kuala Lumpur, the Klang Valley, and Penang.

Bargaining

At markets and in local shops, bargaining is essential and expected. And in shopping malls, although prices are marked on commodities, don’t always assume they are fixed. If you don’t like the cut and thrust of bargaining, or find it too exhausting, you can simply ask for a discount. You might be given a modest reduction.

Start by offering half the price quoted. Remain good-humored and polite, and keep smiling: unpleasantness and aggression will not produce the desired result, but calm persistence will. However, even when you have the satisfaction of tirelessly beating down the salesperson, in between periodically trying to edge out of the shop and then succumbing to the request to reengage in the bargaining encounter, you know, deep down, that as a foreign visitor or tourist you are still probably paying more than a local customer.

SIGHTSEEING

There are many things to see in Malaysia, in both urban and rural settings: town markets, especially those held in the evenings, are a must; food hawker centers; places of worship; Chinese shop houses; colonial architecture; and museums. Malacca (Melaka) is full of them in a short distance from each other. As a general rule, shoes should be removed when you enter temples and mosques, though this is not always necessary in Chinese temples. Just follow what local people do. You may also buy incense sticks in the temple and light them, holding them in both hands and gently waving them in front of you while you pray or make a wish. When entering a mosque, remember the rules of decorum.

The Malacca Sultanate Palace Museum showcases the region’s history.

The main tourist centers, aside from Kuala Lumpur, are Penang (with the island resort of Langkawi not far from Penang) and Malacca, and in Malaysian Borneo Kuching (and adjoining resorts such as Santubong and the Sarawak Cultural Village near the Damai Beach resort) and Kota Kinabalu (with the adjoining hotel and beach area of Tanjung Aru and the Sutera Harbour complex).

Penang is the vacation island that has everything—a historic town center on the eastern side of the island packed with old shop houses, temples, churches, mosques, and colonial buildings, beautiful beaches and resorts in the north, and quieter Malay villages, rural areas, and plantations in the west. Those who want to visit museums, historic buildings, mosques, temples, colonial architecture and shops will obviously go to the main towns and cities. If you have time, however, it is worth going off the beaten path to soak up the local flavor. Penang and Malacca together comprise a UNESCO World Heritage Site (“The Historic Cities of the Straits of Malacca”). Malacca is a great place for museums.

The historic Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion (the “Blue Mansion”), George Town.

Wooded cliffs and sandy bays in Bako National Park, Sarawak.

In rural areas picturesque villages, tropical beaches and coastal scenery, dramatic forest-covered uplands, and the variations in landscape and wildlife in national parks provide lasting visual experiences. Good beaches are abundant on the east coast of the peninsula and some of the idyllic offshore islands. There has been a very large increase in ecotourism in recent years, with associated activities such as diving, bird- and animal-watching, and mountain climbing. The following are just a few of the places to see to experience the natural landscapes of Malaysia:

The Cameron Highlands, a center for the cultivation of Malaysia’s market garden products, tropical and temperate, and examples of British colonial architecture in the old hill station areas.

Taman Negara, peninsular Malaysia’s first national park, originally named King George V Park in 1939, and containing one of the earth’s oldest undisturbed rain forests with a large range of flora and fauna and communities of Orang Asli.

A tea plantation in the Cameron Highlands.

Mount Kinabalu, a national park and UNESCO site with the highest mountain in Southeast Asia and dramatic views; it’s a relatively easy climb to the top, but it’s safest to go with a guide. The park is home to the Rafflesia, the largest flower in the world.

Endau-Rompin National Park, with a vast area of lowland tropical rain forest and Malayan tigers and elephants, and rhinoceros.

Pulau Tioman, off the east coast of peninsular Malaysia, and Langkawi, tropical islands with wonderful beaches.

Batu Cave, a sacred Hindu shrine near Kuala Lumpur, with 272 steps up to the cave, and the focus of the Hindu ceremony of Thaipusam.

Genting Highlands, picturesque uplands with casinos.

Niah Caves, dramatic limestone caves in a national park consisting of peat swamp and dense dipterocarp forest. It provides evidence of early man in Southeast Asia from about 40,000 years ago in the excavated burial areas of the west mouth of Niah Great Cave. The complex also contains the “Painted Cave” with paintings and burial remains from some 2,000 years ago.

Mulu Caves, a UNESCO site reputedly containing the world’s largest cave, the Sarawak Chamber, passageways, and limestone pinnacles, set in a well-preserved rain forest and national park.

Semenggoh, a sanctuary for orangutans not far from Kuching in Sarawak.

Bako, the oldest Sarawak park, has dramatic coastal scenery of steep cliffs, sea arches and stacks, and sandy bays. Home to macaques, silver leaf monkeys, proboscis monkeys, monitor lizards, mouse deer, and wild boar.

A water monitor (Varanus salvator) roaming the lakeside in Penang.

Orangutan enjoying a coconut in Semenggok Forest Reserve, Sarawak.

Sandakan-Sepilok, a popular forest resort area with a well-managed orangutan rehabilitation center and a nearby sanctuary for sun bears, with the Kinabatangan River and its wildlife a few hours away by road.

This list is a very modest taste of what is on offer; you will need much more than a two-week vacation to see and experience all the fascinating and beautiful sights of Malaysia.

CHAPTER SEVEN

TRAVEL, HEALTH, & SAFETY

The Malaysian transportation infrastructure is of a reasonably high standard, but there are some matters to keep in mind when you are planning your trips. Variations in climate can affect travel at certain times of the year. Although Malaysia has a relatively even rainfall throughout the year, the northeast monsoon can be especially severe on the east coast of the peninsula from October and November through to January and February, and along the northeast coasts of Borneo from October to April in Sarawak and to February in Sabah. Heavy rains, high winds, and flooding can occur in exposed regions. Some peninsular east coast facilities might close down for a time during the monsoon period, and boat services are sometimes disrupted.

Because Malaysia is a relatively large country, divided into two parts separated by the South China Sea, the only sensible way to move between the western and eastern parts is by air (unless you happen to be on a cruise). The era of the Straits Steamship Company, when one could sail majestically across the South China Sea from Singapore to Kuching in three days, is pretty much over. And you cannot always count on the main line rail service that connects Singapore via Kuala Lumpur to Penang, though it has been upgraded recently. If you wish to see as much of the country as possible within a limited amount of time, you will probably decide to take domestic flights, particularly if you are on a two- or three-resort vacation that includes both the Peninsula and Malaysian Borneo.

If you want to visit national parks, good beaches, and some of the remoter parts of interior Sarawak and Sabah, allow for possible delays on roads and rivers. Although the main roads are good, once you get on to minor roads you will need to allow plenty of time. Delays can be caused by weather conditions as well, and river levels are notoriously changeable both in and out of the monsoon season. Roads can easily be inundated or washed away if they are not, or are only partially, surfaced.

Maps in Malaysia are improving in quality and you can access them on the Internet. Street maps of the main towns and cities, particularly Kuala Lumpur, Penang, Malacca, Johor Bahru, Kuching, and Kota Kinabalu are serviceable, but sometimes not sufficiently detailed. These can be obtained from most hotel reception desks and tourist information offices. For smaller places you sometimes have to take your chances and follow your nose. There is always Google Earth. The best road maps are produced by foreign publishers. Increasingly visitors and locals use a navigation app; the most popular is Waze.

If you want to get out and about, and it is not part of your overall vacation package, drop into a reputable travel agent or go to the appropriate office or desk in your hotel and see what they can do for you. They may also be able to pick up good discounted deals on hotel or other accommodation and some even better deals if it is out of season. There is a range of apps to access as well, such as Askme Malaysia and the Air Asia app. Of course, it is easiest if you have your transportation requirements (flight, bus, boat, or car with a driver) built into the package rather than having to organize your own method of travel.

WALKING

For the foreign visitor unused to a humid tropical climate it is not advisable to dash around the towns and countryside on foot, or certainly not until you are fully acclimatized. Depending on your state of physical health you might find that short walks in town for sightseeing and shopping are all that you can manage, interspersed with moments of respite in an air-conditioned mall, in a taxi, or on a bus. Use sidewalks, underpasses, and overpasses; some Malaysian drivers can be a bit unpredictable. Don’t expect high standards of sidewalk maintenance.

Plan your itineraries carefully. Allow plenty of time, and make sure you can find a taxi or bus if you need to get out of the sun and off your feet. For the fair-skinned visitor, sunblock, hat, and umbrella are useful; an umbrella protects against the sun and the sudden heavy tropical downpour. For a woman, covering the shoulders and arms when walking in town is both a way of ensuring one’s modesty and protecting against sunburn.

Mind Your Step

When walking in Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Penang, Kota Kinabalu, and Kuching, I sometimes wonder how anyone who is disabled or who has difficulty walking can negotiate the street hazards. There are often broken sidewalks, missing drain and sewer covers, half-finished road works, and other obstacles. These are complicated by the need for high sidewalks and storm drains to cope with tropical downpours.

After or during heavy rain there are the added problems of flooding, standing water, and slippery walkways. Recently, wearing what I thought were sensible shoes (but which obviously did not have nonslip soles), I crashed down a flight of steps outside a Kuala Lumpur shopping mall after heavy rainfall. The top step, smooth and sloping slightly downward, was treacherous, and tiled pavements can be tricky.

The Saloma Link footbridge across the Klang River in Kuala Lumpur at night.

Despite the hazards of walking it is far more sensible than going on a bicycle (motorized or otherwise), unless you are very adventurous, fearless in traffic, extremely fit, and fully protected against the sun. If you are a bike enthusiast, then you could hop into a rickshaw. They are gradually disappearing from the Malaysian streets, but still numerous in such places as George Town in Penang and Malacca. They provide a leisurely way of seeing street life in the cool of the early evening.

Resting rickshaw.

TAXIS

You are spoiled for choice. In urban areas taxis are a good bet. They are usually air-conditioned, and though some may have seen better days they usually get you to your destination without mishap. In peninsular Malaysia they are metered and reasonably priced, but make sure the driver turns the meter on; tourists are easy prey to taxi drivers who try to charge an inflated rate. Even so rates are generally very reasonable for Western visitors. In Sarawak and Sabah taxis are usually not metered and are more expensive; you have to bargain and agree upon the fare in advance. You are well advised to take a map and a pen and paper with you with your destination clearly indicated. Although you can usually make yourself understood you do on occasion get very blank stares and end up in totally the wrong place.

Charter Taxis

The long-distance charter taxis are a wonderful Malaysian institution. They are usually found at stands near bus stations or in other prominent parts of town. The driver waits until he gets four passengers; rates are very reasonable. If you are not in a party of four and you don’t want to wait for a full load, you have to pick up the remaining fares; you can also travel in relative comfort. The drivers, however, can be adventurous and like to travel at high speed.

If you want to sightsee, in or out of town, you can negotiate a deal with a taxi driver for some hours. Some drivers are good tour guides and will give you interesting information; others just want your money. But like taxi drivers the world over Malaysian drivers usually want to talk with you, and you can pick up all kinds of useful tips about the local scene and entertainment.

Malaysia also has the Grab taxi system, if you have the app, which is much cheaper than regular taxis and also provides a range of other transportation services.

Improvements in the road system have made journeys much safer. Nevertheless, you have to note that road accidents are not rare in Malaysia, though the police are managing to curb some of the worst excesses of the Malaysian driver and are trying to enforce the speed limits.

BUSES

Buses are really good value, and ubiquitous. You can take long-distance air-conditioned express buses. There are usually conveniently located bus stations in towns and cities. Puduraya bus station in Kuala Lumpur is an exciting, manic place if you want to observe the colorful flotsam and jetsam of travelers spilling off vehicles and trying to board buses already overloaded with luggage and shopping.

Traveling in Malaysia is also a social occasion. Malaysian friendliness means that you can always engage someone in conversation whether on a bus (which is the best transportation medium for engaging with local people), chartered taxi, or train. Rarely are you able to sit quietly when a local person sits next to you; they will want to find out about you, what you are doing, whether you are enjoying your stay in Malaysia, and whether you can speak Malay.

Town buses are fun and very cheap, though they can be noisy, crowded, and sometimes uncomfortable. But it is all part of the cross-cultural adventure. In Kuala Lumpur and some of the other main urban centers the minibuses are convenient, numerous, and frequent, but because they are smaller and more maneuverable than ordinary buses, drivers often have their own interpretation of where bus stops are located. This can work to your advantage, or not!

CARS AND RENTALS

If you want to be independent and drive yourself, there are many car rental agencies in Malaysia, from the internationally recognized, like Avis and Hertz, to the local such as Economy, Suria, and Momondo (all have their own apps). Expatriates and foreign visitors need a valid driver’s license from their own country. A valid national or international license will allow you to drive in Malaysia for three months before you need to apply for a local license. To drive a car you must be over eighteen years of age, and of sound mind and body.

For car rental there are usually special three-day and weekend rates, and you should take out the appropriate additional insurance; it’s cheaper to rent a car in Kuala Lumpur in November than it is in August. Rates can vary significantly at different times of the year so check the car rental Web sites and apps.

Malaysians drive on the left, so it’s slightly easier for the British and Irish than for visitors from North America. If you are driving in the Kuala Lumpur rush hours (and it is hours), sometimes you wonder whether there is any advantage in being accustomed to driving on the left, if you manage to move at all. Traffic jams in Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley are legendary. Lane discipline is not something that comes naturally and easily to the Kuala Lumpur driver, though once you get used to driving in the capital city there does seem to be some logic to it all. Also do not assume that people use their rearview mirrors, or that they signal where they are going, or that they will always pass on your right-hand side, or that they will park in designated parking spaces. Outside Kuala Lumpur everything else is smooth sailing, usually. Drivers and passengers must wear seat belts, which does give you a higher level of reassurance and confidence.

Speed limits are 70 mph (110 kmph) on expressways, though in certain areas, for example on dangerous bends, it is reduced to 50–55 mph (80–90 kmph). On federal and state roads it is usually 55 mph (90 kmph) or again where necessary it is reduced to 50 mph (80 kmph). In towns the limit is 40 mph (60 kmph) and for road safety purposes near schools or where there is heavy traffic for example it is reduced to 20 mph (35 kmph). If you are in Malaysia at the time of a major festival you might find that speed limits are reduced. Fines for speeding are usually 300 Malaysian dollars; you can check and pay the fine online at MyEG (Royal Malaysia Police).

If you are going to explore off the beaten path, especially in the wilds of Sarawak and Sabah, a four-wheel drive vehicle is essential. On the peninsula there is a good road network, with the tolled superhighway or expressway running from the Thai border via Kuala Lumpur to Singapore. But go with lots of cash—the tolls can add up—or purchase a Touch ‘n Go or a SmartTAG card. The Waze app also now provides information on toll rates nationwide. Near major urban and industrial centers the roads are very busy and often clogged with slow-moving vehicles.

RAILWAYS

There is something rather romantic about traveling by rail in Malaysia on a railway system that was built during the late colonial period. The network is operated by the national railway company, Keretapi Tanah Melayu Berhad (KTMB), and the main line runs all the way from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur and to Butterworth (Penang), and then to the Thai border, with a number of branch lines. The station buildings and hotels in the main cities are listed buildings of great architectural interest.

There are three services: express with air-conditioning, and usually first- and second-class; limited express, which is somewhat slower, with some air-conditioning, but with third-class available as well; and the stop-anywhere, non-air-conditioned local trains (if you have a few days to spare and want to see the countryside). There is also a short stretch of railway in Sabah, which runs from Kota Kinabalu to Beaufort and Tenom; the western end of the journey runs through the spectacular scenery of the Crocker Range.

The stretch of line between Kuala Lumpur and Ipoh has been upgraded, double-tracked, and electrified, partly to develop tourist business. It enables tourists to get to the northern part of the peninsula and Penang more quickly, and also opens up the hidden delights of Ipoh, the “city built on tin,” and a sadly neglected place on the tourist circuit that is well worth a visit.

Kuala Lumpur also has its own Light Rail Transit (LRT), Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), and Monorail system. The network is run by several private companies with separate but linked systems, including RapidKL, which runs the Ampang and Kelana Jaya lines, KL Monorail, and KTM Komuter. There is also the Express Rail Link (ERL), which runs a nonstop express (reaching a maximum speed of about 100 mph/160 kmph), as well as a commuter service on the 35-mile (57-km) track between KL International Airport and KL Sentral. KL Sentral is the major hub for the LRT system. Airline passengers can also check in their luggage at KL Sentral before boarding the express train for KLIA. The first services were opened in 1996 and they proved a hit with visitors to the Commonwealth Games in 1998.

“Stuff Happens”

Once I took the train with my wife from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur to enjoy a rather different experience. We were delayed for six hours outside Johor Bahru because heavy rains had caused a landslide and blocked the track. Far from viewing scenery and landscapes, we spent most of the journey in the dark. We decamped to the restaurant car with four friendly and somewhat tipsy Sikh gentlemen who proceeded to recount their version of Malaysian history, and arrived in Kuala Lumpur just before midnight rather than early evening, worse for wear. Now with double-tracking and electrification, these delights may no longer be available.

Traveling on the LRT is fun; some services run fully automated trains without drivers, others have a driver; some lines are raised above street level and give wonderful views of the cityscape. The LRT is easy to use; the route map is relatively simple and well set out. It covers all the main tourist destinations in and around the capital, and it’s efficient and cheap. You can get out as far as the more distant suburbs such as Rawang, Seremban, and Port Klang. You rarely have to wait longer than ten minutes for a train; during peak hours they run much more frequently, and a little less frequently on Sundays.

You can purchase a day pass as well as integrated rail and bus passes, but a single LRT journey will only cost you 70 cents to a few dollars single, depending on destination; tickets are purchased at vending machines, not at staffed kiosks. All kinds of packages are also available (1–day, 3–day, 7–day, unlimited).

AIR TRAVEL

If you want to get from one place to another fast, and take in the major sights and resorts, then it has to be air travel, probably on the domestic carriers Malaysian Airlines, MASwings, Air Asia, Malindo Air, Firefly, and Berjaya Air. Together they serve all major towns and cities and, using small planes, many out-of-the-way places as well. There are regular flights (overbooking is a problem, especially at holiday times). Other airlines such as Singapore Airlines, Royal Brunei Airlines, and Thai Airways serve various destinations in Malaysia outside the capital, including Penang, Kuching, and Kota Kinabalu. KL–Singapore shuttle services are available. Of course, these can be accessed on Tripadvisor and other similar Web sites, as well as specific airline Web sites and their apps.

Turboprop airplane landing at Langkawi Island airport.

BOATS

In Malaysian Borneo, aside from road and air travel, you may well find yourself on a boat. Given that the road system is still not extensive, there continues to be heavy reliance on river transportation, especially if you are traveling into the interior. On the major rivers there are regular express-boat services with relatively low fares and on-boat video and musical entertainment. It is a good way to catch glimpses of jungle scenery and local longhouse and village communities while being blasted by popular music (Chinese and anything else) and scenes of Arnold Schwarzenegger exterminating all before him, or Asian Kungfu and horror movies.

The express-boat jetty in Kuching, Sarawak.

HEALTH

You need to take a few simple precautions before traveling to Malaysia, especially if you are a first-time visitor. Medical insurance is essential, and you should seek advice from your doctor about the necessary inoculations and equip yourself with sufficient supplies of any other medications you might need.

Vaccinations are not legally required for entry into Malaysia, but for those over one year of age and who have visited a country within the previous six days where there is yellow fever, a certificate of vaccination has to be presented. The coronavirus pandemic in 2020 may lead to other requirements being introduced. There is a good range of state and private hospitals and clinics in the towns and cities, and many well-stocked pharmacies, but not always in smaller settlements and out-of-the-way places.

The major inoculations advised for Malaysia are typhoid, tetanus, and hepatitis A. You may also need to seek advice about diphtheria, rabies, and hepatitis B. Dengue fever, malaria, zika virus, and Japanese encephalitis are also present. If you are confining your visit to urban areas then you might not need to take a primary prophylactic against malaria, but if you are recommended to take antimalarial drugs you must start the course at least a week before departure and continue for at least four weeks after your return. You may find that the particular prescription will vary depending on precisely where you are intending to go; there are different strains of the parasite with different resistances. You should also purchase appropriate insect repellents, but it’s best to get the recommended brand when you arrive.

Take care with drinking water (and ice) and make sure it is boiled or filtered and sterilized. Bottled mineral water is on sale everywhere. The Malay for water is air (pronounced “ah-yer”).

Try to ensure, though it’s sometimes difficult to do so, that meat and fish have been well cooked. Diarrhea isn’t inevitable but it’s likely. Often it is relatively mild and results from a change of diet and eating spicy food. If it does become more serious medication is required, and ample supplies of water to avoid dehydration. If in doubt consult a doctor.

Avoid too much sun and cover up when you are out. Use sunscreens and take note if you are sweating profusely. Keep up your salt intake and drink plenty of water. Rather than serious infections you are more likely to suffer from skin problems—sunburn, insect bites and stings, prickly heat, rashes, and fungal infections. A supply of ointments, creams, and antihistamine is advisable.

COVID-19

The coronavirus pandemic has had a major negative impact. The government has been particularly sensitive to the financial and commercial needs of tourism and it has put safety nets in place. But there is now a rethinking of policy. Recently there has been an increasing emphasis on the domestic tourist market—a shift away from the mass package, low-end tourism of the kind that has been encouraged in East Asia—toward more sustainable, environmentally and culturally friendly kinds of tourist activity. Malaysia will still depend on mass tourism in certain sectors and sites such Penang and Kota Kinabalu, but it may well begin to promote itself differently and attempt to appeal more directly to those tourists interested in the environment, culture, heritage, and history, and not so much in sun, sea, and sand.

SAFETY

Malaysia is a relatively safe place to visit, but take advice from your hotel or other local people about where you might visit and where you shouldn’t, especially at night in large cities and towns. Open-air and usually crowded markets as well as public transportation are favorite places for pickpockets and purse snatchers in places like Kuala Lumpur. Don’t walk around with a wallet, purse, or other valuables in full view or in easily accessible pockets or places.

Ensure that you have photocopies or duplicates of all your important documents. Keep your passport and other travel documents and any surplus cash, as well as expensive jewelry, in a safe place. Most good-class hotels have room safes for the storage of some valuables, or you can make use of a secure box at reception. You should also have a record of important telephone numbers for credit card and insurance companies. Just use your common sense.

Malaysia is a very politically stable country, though there are currently some border problems occasioned by Muslim separatists in southern Thailand and northeastern Sabah. Take advice or consult the appropriate diplomatic mission if you are planning to visit northern peninsular Malaysia or travel from there to Thailand, or if you are visiting Sabah. There have been some cases of hijacking of vehicles and kidnappings. In addition, some areas in northern and eastern Sabah have been settled by Muslim people from the southern Philippines, and they have been involved in separatist activities against the Philippine government. Again, take care if you are traveling there.

CHAPTER EIGHT

BUSINESS BRIEFING

THE SOCIAL CONTEXT

As we have seen, Malaysians emphasize the importance of the family, the principle of trust and respect between members of a family and a wider social group, the importance of respect and deference between senior or high-status people and junior or those of low status, and the need to reach and maintain consensus and harmonious relations for personal, social, and spiritual reasons. These values are also expressed in the world of business and commerce. Remember, too, that ethnic identity is a vitally important principle, and the business visitor must be prepared to move deftly and carefully along these sometimes tortuous pathways.

THE IMPORTANCE OF RELATIONSHIPS

Given the importance of collective action and a communal ethos, the foreign businessperson in Malaysia has to be prepared to invest time in getting to know potential business partners. Malaysians want to get to know you as a person. They want to know something about your character, background, status, and likes and dislikes. Malaysians rarely do business with someone whom they do not take to personally. In a fast-moving business world, where there may well be an expectation of making a deal as swiftly and efficiently as possible, there may be a degree of impatience to get down to business right away, but it is not appropriate etiquette to do so without first engaging in some small talk. Nor, following negotiations, should you expect immediate acceptances and decisions. A Malaysian will usually want to think it over and consult others.

The social element of doing business demands a significant level of face-to-face contact. Of course, e-mail, phone, video conferencing, Skype, FaceTime, Facebook, WhatsApp, WhatsApp Messenger, FB Messenger, and other forms of electronic interaction are essential, but so is face-to-face interaction. These enable you to arrange appointments with potential business partners with a minimum of fuss. You should usually do this well in advance through your own office. When you are in Malaysia, make contact with your host’s secretary or assistant to confirm the meeting. You may be requested to meet in the office or business premises, or for lunch or dinner in a hotel or restaurant. Business, office hours, and daily routine are given on pages 112–115.

SOCIAL INTERACTION

Social meetings, dinners, golf, and sometimes an invitation to a person’s home (if relations are developing well) are part of the process of building confidence in a business relationship. Business deals may well be given a kick-start at the golf club, sports club, or restaurant. With Chinese hosts you might also be encouraged to display your singing prowess in a karaoke bar.

These social events provide opportunities to get to know the pecking order and status of potential business partners, who the significant decision makers are, and who are the subordinates. The person whom you think is the boss might not be, though the order in which people enter a room or restaurant usually indicates seniority, in that the most senior person enters first. Detailed negotiations may also not be undertaken by the most senior executive or the owner but instead by someone younger, more fluent in English, who has been trained in a business school.

The greater the time spent in building relationships, the more you will be able to observe and learn the appropriate etiquette of respect, deference, and proper conduct in subsequent discussions and negotiations. Initially Malaysians can be relatively formal until they get to know you, but they are unfailingly polite. Too much informality at a first meeting can sometimes be interpreted as disrespectful. Although Malaysians do have a flexible view of time, you should always be punctual at business meetings, and during the meeting try to avoid looking at your watch as if you have somewhere else to go. You need to allow plenty of time for a meeting, and don’t expect that it will end at a fixed or prearranged point.

CARDS AND CREDENTIALS

We have already discussed the etiquette of greetings and first encounters in Malaysia, and dress (on pages 91–4). An additional dimension is the business card. Cards are a crucial part of business transactions in Malaysia, and they are also exchanged quite liberally at social functions. Your contact will normally give you a card that contains information about his title and status. Be sure to have an ample supply yourself—there is a degree of awkwardness in being given a card and having nothing to give in return.

The card should be received with the right hand, with some support from the left, or taken with both hands and studied attentively and respectfully. It should not be taken casually or indifferently and immediately slipped into a pocket. You have the donor’s person and status in your hands. After the meeting, try to remember the face of the person that goes with the card for future reference, and during a meeting, if you are seated around a table, it may be useful to place the cards in front of you as a reminder of names, positions, and titles. It may be handy to keep them in an indexed cardholder in your briefcase.

Given that so much emphasis is placed on the personal dimension of business relationships, it is also important to check out the credentials of potential business partners and their companies. They will have done their homework on you.

INTRODUCTIONS AND MEETINGS

On your first formal visit to a company, there may well be speeches of welcome and compliments from your hosts. You may have to introduce yourself and your company, and make a presentation. If you are introducing a product, or hoping to develop a joint project, go armed with a good supply of whatever will be helpful in the way of documents, samples, plans, brochures, CDs, power points, videos, or catalogs, or send them in advance.

Once business is under way, be clear in your own objectives, but, of course, be prepared to compromise. The deal is not concluded until it is set down in writing in a contract and signed. Malaysians often like to have formal signing ceremonies with photographs, speeches, and the exchange of gifts. Chinese business partners might also want to wait for an auspicious day in their calendar. Contracts are important, but Malaysians tend to seek personal trust and loyalty on a longer-term basis as well, and in this context Chinese partners might well ask for changes to the contract even after the contract has been signed.

GIFT GIVING

Malaysians love giving gifts, again as a sign of friendship or developing friendship, respect, gratitude, and as a memento to mark an event. However, tread very carefully in the whole area of gift giving, and seek advice from contacts and intermediaries about what is expected, reasonable, and appropriate. Bribery is officially condemned in Malaysia, which is clean in comparison with some other countries in the region. You can report cases of corruption to the Malaysian Anti-Corruption Agency, but you should be very sure of your evidence and before taking any drastic action talk it over with local and trusted colleagues and friends or with your diplomatic representatives. Of course, your prospective business partners will expect some good-quality entertainment and refreshment in return for their hospitality to you, and they will obviously want to treat you well. However, the distinction between gifts, donations, bribes, perks, commissions, and spin-offs can sometimes be difficult to determine.

PERSONAL BUSINESS

This issue is also complicated by the social dimension of relationships. Do not be surprised that Malaysian business operations are frequently based on close personal, family, ethnic, and patronage ties. Prominent Malay ex-civil servants and former politicians, as well as members of royalty and the nobility, are often closely interconnected in the higher levels of management and ownership of large state and various private sector companies. This principle operates in the private sector too, where Chinese interests based on family, clan, and dialect group help to determine employment, membership, and position. Influential Chinese and Malay businesspeople also sit together as boards of directors, and it is probably true to say that Malaysian business is dominated by a relatively small and closely connected and interrelated power elite. It is best to be circumspect when talking about the affairs of another company to your prospective business partners; they may also own or control it!

Likewise, don’t be surprised if several people in a particular company or office are related. Though we in the West might think that people should be employed only on the basis of qualifications, merit, and skills, in Malaysia the obligations to kin and friends may tip the balance, though these other factors are still important.

THE MALAYS AND BUSINESS

Given the dominant position of Malays in government and administration, though they are also increasingly seen in business, the foreign visitor chasing a public-sector contract or dealing with the authorities will usually have to enter discussions and negotiations with senior Malay bureaucrats. With civil servants such concerns as the national interest might outweigh those to do with pure profit, and political considerations might figure more prominently than commercial ones. Be mindful of the need to observe procedure and take the correct procedural steps. Be careful not to offend.

In private-sector negotiations one might also meet with Malay businesspeople as more and more Malays have been encouraged by government policy to take up commercial and industrial careers. Some have also gone into partnership with Chinese entrepreneurs, or Chinese companies have seen advantages in appointing prominent Malays to senior management positions and to their board of directors.

THE CHINESE AND BUSINESS

Nevertheless, the private sector, and especially retailing, trade, finance and construction, and small- and medium-sized companies, are still largely a Chinese preserve, and to a lesser extent Indian, where the profit motive is usually center stage, and the ethos is based much more on pragmatism and a flexible attitude toward market opportunities.

The foreign businessperson might also encounter Chinese in business who come across as rather more aggressive and shrewd, although these characteristics may be tempered by the Asian values of politeness, family, community, loyalty, hierarchy, and respect. Traditional Chinese social organization is based on the extended family focused on the male line and this is expressed in Chinese business life in terms of the importance of kinship, loyalty, and deference, and the relations between closely related circles of men.

There is a host of characteristics that have been used to explain the success of Chinese business: Confucian values of filial piety and loyalty, collectivism, clear lines of authority between seniors and juniors, the ethic of hard work, the effectiveness of personal networks or connections (guanxi), and the importance of trust (sinyong) and mutual understanding within the family firm and in intra-ethnic networks. These are elaborated on below. But it is important to note that cultural values are not fixed, stable, and unchanging, and nor do they necessarily directly determine behavior. They are often used selectively and according to the situation, and they are used to justify a particular approach, position, or rationale. You may well find that the above value complex is expressed most frequently and positively by the older generation of Chinese businesspeople, often from a family-firm background. But the educated younger Chinese generation is not necessarily wedded to these values; behavior and attitudes will often vary according to age, education, experience, the size and nature of the company, and so on.

There are differences in management styles and business practices. Traditionally the Chinese operated in a family-firm context where ethnic, personal, and social relations were given priority. The international business environment has changed in Malaysia and the Chinese now work with other ethnic groups and have to conform to national and international legal and institutional requirements. Moreover, Chinese family firms have been broken up or taken over in a competitive business environment and the Chinese now work with others beyond the Chinese community. Nevertheless, there still seems to be a tendency among Chinese involved in business to mesh their economic interests with a desire to establish social and personal relations with their business partners. Remember the Chinese can and do operate in different modes, and can switch from Chinese values and practices according to context.

BEWARE OF “TELLING IT LIKE IT IS”

Westerners usually place a positive value on engaging openly in debate and in winning an argument by individual skill, fluency, and forcefulness. Emotions are deliberately put to one side. Malaysians recognize this pattern of behavior, but culturally are much more concerned about the social context of interaction and with preserving harmony, balance, and consensus. Malaysians, and Malays especially, tend to be guided more by their emotions and inner feelings. They do not openly reveal these, but it is as well to be aware that this renders them personally more vulnerable in negotiation and argument. Elaborate codes of conduct are ideal mechanisms for dealing with conflicts and tensions.

Emphasis is placed on courtesy, humility, tact, and deference. A very commonly used word in Malay is malu (shy, embarrassed, ashamed). Malu might be used to describe someone blushing over a personal remark made about them, or being shy in front of others, or to refer to the importance of being modest, courteous, and deferential. Juniors and inferiors in front of their seniors and superiors should show this sense of “shame.”

There is a desire to reach agreement through consultation and compromise rather than by confrontation. It is important that no one should be offended, and no one publicly undermined. Losing face—being undermined or humiliated in public—causes shame and embarrassment. For this reason foreign business visitors should try to avoid showing their emotions, particularly strong and negative emotions such as annoyance, irritation, anger, and impatience, and in a public forum “telling it like it is.” Never interrupt or talk over anyone.

The visitor who might have occasion to reprimand someone should give some thought as to how this should be done. To do so in public would be seen as a personal insult, and might even be considered to augur bad luck. If an individual is at fault, they will feel bad about it. To confront them in front of others and expose wrongdoing, weakness, or shortcomings would be rude and thoughtless, and would moreover result in loss of esteem for you. In general, issuing commands and throwing your weight around are not appreciated.

An effective way of demonstrating concern or displeasure is through the use of an intermediary rather than face-to-face. This is an excellent rule of thumb if, as an expatriate, you are working in an office or business in Malaysia. Even so, it might still be difficult to determine if offense has been given and taken. It is usually through experience that one begins to pick up the subtle changes in manner, expression, and tone of voice that indicate that all is not well.

SMILES, NODS, AND SILENCES

The sparing of people’s feelings and avoiding openly rejecting others and their opinions are important cultural requirements in Malaysia. It is better to be low-key and humble than self-assured and pompous. A very commonly used word in Malay is ma’af (sorry).

The Malaysian smile is a very versatile facial expression with a range of meanings. It can be used to avoid a direct confrontation. A smile and a nod accompanied by a “yes” might not be quite what they seem. To avoid open disagreement or offense, this might translate as simply “I hear you,” or “I understand,” but it might not indicate agreement. Sometimes it might cover incomprehension, when it would be impolite to say, “I don’t understand.”

A smile can also signify embarrassment, disagreement, or even annoyance. Malaysians do not usually like being put on the spot with a direct question, and there are various devices to cope with this, such as moving on to another topic, lapsing into chitchat, and, of course, the smile.

Be prepared for periods of silence. Malaysians are not uncomfortable if a meeting lapses into periodic silence. It is a time for reflection and weighing another’s position. It can also take the heat out of a situation and restore calmness to the proceedings.

WOMEN IN BUSINESS

As we have seen, Malaysian women are very evident in higher education. Although there are inequalities between the sexes, women do occupy a relatively high status in society. They are also active in small and domestic businesses and have the reputation of being good with money and sound financial managers. They are found increasingly in business and the professions, though still mainly in lower- and middle-management positions, and some are prominent in political life. Senior secretarial staff and personal assistants are frequently women, who play a prominent role as office and business intermediaries.

Muslim Malay women at work may well cover their heads, though not their faces, and wear the full-length skirt with a loose, long-sleeved blouse that extends to mid-thigh (baju kurung). Some may wear Western dress in the office. Western male visitors should observe the necessary Muslim etiquette and protocol and avoid being too familiar or informal with women in the office.

Visiting businesswomen usually experience no problems in the business environment and should not feel ill at ease because of their gender. They are treated with respect and politeness provided that they, in turn, observe the appropriate behavior and dress codes.

CHAPTER NINE

COMMUNICATING

THE NATIONAL LANGUAGE

Bahasa Malaysia, “the Malaysian Language,” is the official language, and is a standardized form of the Malay language, or Bahasa Melayu. With some variations it is also the official language of neighboring Indonesia, Brunei, and Singapore. It is a major language within the broader and very diverse linguistic family of Austronesian, which is found as far afield as Madagascar, southern Vietnam, the Philippines, and through the Pacific, including New Zealand and Hawaii, to Easter Island.

The earliest form of Malay is thought to have originated in western Borneo (though there is still academic debate about this), but it certainly developed in Sumatra and was later disseminated as a language of trade. It was liberally sprinkled with elements of Arabic, Indian, Chinese, Portuguese, Dutch, and English.

Malaysians, with their different backgrounds, will have knowledge of Malay to varying degrees and levels of proficiency, though there are also considerable variations in dialects, and these may diverge from the national language. A widely used, everyday form of Malay, or pidgin Malay, which can be heard in the streets and markets, used by Chinese shopkeepers for example, is appropriately called “bazaar Malay” (Melayu pasar).

Malay has a traditional script called Jawi, which is based on Arabic, but the written language has long been Romanized. Therefore, you can read it, even if you do not understand it. It’s a good idea to buy an up-to-date English–Malay pocket guide, available in airport bookstores and local bookshops, or use an app like Google Translate. The language, like all languages, is constantly evolving—so buy the newest edition, or download an app of Malay–English.

To engage with local people and learn something of the local culture, it is worth the effort to learn some words of Malay. Some basic vocabulary and everyday sentences are relatively easy; but you may find that local people will still respond to you in English!

Tips on Spelling and Pronunciation

Some “problem” consonants are pronounced as follows:

c as in cat (paint) is “ch,” as in “chat”

g as in garam (salt) is hard, as in “good”

h in hitam (black) is soft, but usually not pronounced

kh as in khusus (special) is a hard “k”

ng in dengar (to hear) is soft, as in “song”

ngg in mangga (mango) is hard, as in “tango”

sy in syarikat (a company) is pronounced “sh,” as in “shutter”

r as in baru (new) is trilled or rolled

Malay, like English, has five vowels: a e i o u. i o u are long; a is short, and e can be unaccented, like the “u” in English “put,” or stressed, as in French. There are two diphthongs: au (as in “how”) and ai (as in “die”).

SOME GREETINGS AND USEFUL PHRASES

It is certainly worth learning a few stock phrases of Bahasa Malaysia. Malaysians will appreciate your efforts and it is a good way of establishing rapport and interacting with local people.

Selamat pagi, selamat tengahari, selamat petang, and selamat malam are “good morning,” “good day (midday),” “good afternoon,”/“good evening,” and “good night” (selamat literally means “peaceful”). These are relatively formal greetings.

Another set of “peaceful” greetings is selamat datang (welcome), selamat tinggal (good-bye, said by the person leaving), selamat jalan (good-bye, bon voyage, said by the one staying behind), sampai jumpa lagi (until we meet again), and salam sejahtera (peace and well-being). Sometimes the term selamat is left out, and one is greeted by pagi or petang.

Young Malaysians may offer an informal “Hi” or “Hello” (in Malay spelt Helo). And because English is used widely in Malaysia you might just get “Morning,” “Evening.”

Another informal greeting is to ask, Apa khabar? (How are you? or, literally, What news?). A simple response, khabar baik (I am fine), or merely baik (fine), will suffice. Also useful is bagus (good).

You might then want to ask someone’s name: Apa nama anda/kamu? (What is your name?) and say Nama saya—(My name is —).

An exchange about directions might include: darimana? (from where?), kemana? (where to?), dimana? (where?). Dari, ke, and di translate as “from,” “to,” and “in” or “at;” kanan “right,” and kiri, “left.” To ask where someone is from say: Berasal darimana? The response is Saya berasal dari —.

Malaysian preoccupations with social and family background might also prompt queries about marital status: Encik sudah berkawin? (Are you married?); Berapa orang anak tuan/puan? (Do you have children?).

Finally, other common and useful words in everyday conversation are: ya (yes), tidak (no), belum (not yet), ma’af (sorry, excuse me), minta ma’af (to beg pardon), hari ini (today, literally, this day), besok (tomorrow), semalam, kelmarin (yesterday), makan (eat), minum (drink), saya mau (I would like), saya tidak mau (I do not want), beli (buy), saya tidak mengerti/faham (I do not understand), terima kasih (thank you), terima kasih banyak (thank you very much), sila or mari (please [go ahead]), tolong (please [request for help]), minta (please [request for something]), laki-laki (male), lelaki (man), perempuan (woman), orang (person).

The numerals from one to ten are: satu, dua, tiga, empat, lima, enam, tujuh, lapan, sembilan, sepuluh. One hundred is seratus, and one thousand seribu.

It’s also fun to learn some key words from menus so that you can order food in restaurants. The words for basic ingredients and drinks are very easy to learn, not least the Malay for rice, nasi, and fried rice, nasi goreng, and the Chinese word for noodles, mee, which Malays also use.

Tea and coffee are the (pronounced “tay”) and kopi, but the variety of ways in which Malaysians have adapted these drinks have given rise to many other words, which you will soon pick up.

This brief excursion into Malay should get you on your way, at least for the short-term visitor.

OTHER LANGUAGES

In Malaysia’s multiethnic and multicultural society many other languages are also commonly used: Mandarin, and a variety of southern Chinese dialects including Cantonese and Hokkien, several Indian languages, particularly Tamil, and the numerous native languages of Borneo.

For the really ambitious, particularly those in business, it might be worth learning some Mandarin, and, as the strength of mainland China’s economy grows, this becomes an increasingly attractive proposition. But be warned, it is a difficult language to master, requiring long hours of intensive study.

MALAYSIAN ENGLISH

English is widely used in Malaysia, in the media, and in higher education, and is the preferred language of business and tourism. You will have no difficulty finding local people who will speak to you in English. However, you should take the trouble to speak clearly, at a moderate pace, using complete sentences. Conversely, an old Cantonese taxi driver with few teeth asking you rapidly in English, or more accurately Malaysian-Chinese English, where you wish to go in Kuala Lumpur can also be something of a challenge.

The Malaysians have developed their own English style (“Manglish), and Chinese Malaysians in particular have adapted and abbreviated English for their own purposes. The word “can” is especially versatile. As in the English colloquialism “Can do,” it means “Yes,” “I can do it.” or “It’s possible,” while “Also can” is a little less positive. “Cannot” is the obvious negative response. “How can” is even more emphatically negative, and if someone asks for something unreasonably then a likely negative response is “Where got.” “Can ah?” is asking if something can be done, or if it’s possible or all right. Without the interrogation, “Can ah” gives permission.

There is also the very common use of the word “lah” to round off a sentence. It may or may not be used for emphasis. “Last time” is a general referent for the past or past tense and “Next time” is used for the future.

Malaysians also mix English and Malay. Rather than use the English word “eat,” Malaysians prefer their own word, makan; so they might say, “Shall we makan?” or “Let’s go for makan” or, if suggesting a drink, “Let’s minum.” The importance of having a bath or shower in the tropics also ensures that the Malay word mandi is used frequently. Before eating it might be suggested that you might “Mandi first” (mandi dulu).

Something Familiar?

If you are an English-speaker you will notice some Malay words, such as ambulans, aspirin, bank, doktor, and telefon, that are reassuringly close to their English equivalents. Try these: bas, beg, bir, farmasi, filem, kaunter, minit, polis, pos, stem, stesyen, teksi. The translations are jumbled in the following list: police, minute, counter, bus, stamp, beer, bag/baggage, film, pharmacy, taxi, post, and station. Good luck!

GENERAL COMPORTMENT

As we have seen, there is a developed etiquette and use of gestures, facial expressions, and postures in Malaysia. Here are some of the more important dos and don’ts.

Do

Be tactful and polite.

Show respect to your seniors.

Address people using their correct title.

Remove your shoes when entering someone’s house (unless they say otherwise) or a mosque or temple.

Dress modestly and conservatively.

Be patient and calm during meetings and social encounters.

Speak clearly, gently, and in a measured way.

Show interest in local cultures, cuisine, and language.

Don’t

Give or receive things with your left hand.

Point or beckon with your index finger.

Point your foot at anyone.

Show the soles of your shoes or feet.

Grasp anyone’s hand in a firm handshake.

Shake a woman’s hand unless she offers it.

Touch, embrace, or kiss someone of the opposite sex in public.

Touch anyone’s head or hair.

Stand with your hands on your hips.

Speak loudly or aggressively.

Publicly reprimand or embarrass anyone.

Display your feelings openly.

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION

There is a wide range of media services and access to news and information. However, the Malaysian government keeps a close eye on public criticism and political opposition, and the level of public debate is lower than in the West. There is strict censorship of publications, films, programs, and performances deemed to be counter to Malaysian, particularly Muslim, values of decency. Several Western popular musicians have been banned. There is also control of government-owned media reporting on sensitive issues. However, there are privately owned media companies, and some Malaysian-based Internet sources critical of the government are tolerated.

The Media

The Press

The most popular English-language newspaper, established in 1845, is the New Straits Times, which also has a Sunday edition and an online version. Other English-language papers are The Star, The Sun, and Business Times. There are numerous Malay- and Chinese-language dailies.

There is considerable choice of Internet news services; the government operates its own Bernama News Agency that gives the official government line; other news providers are Reuters Malaysia and Focus on Malaysia. Newspapers operate online services. A service that provides a more critical and independent view of Malaysian affairs, and which is very widely used, is the Malaysia-based Malaysiakini.com, as well as Free Malaysia Today.

Television and Radio

Malaysia has a relatively wide choice of TV and radio programs. There are six free-to-air TV channels, including the government-owned Radio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM), which operates TV1, TV2, TV Okey, RTM HD Sports, and RTM BES; it also runs eight national, sixteen state, and seven district radio stations; there are also private radio stations.

TV1 has educational, local information, news, and entertainment programs in Malay and English. TV2 provides entertainment programs and films in Malay, English, Chinese, Tamil, and Hindi, and even Korean, Thai, and Spanish. The most popular channel is TV3, mainly providing entertainment in Malay and English, and operated by the independent Media Prima Berhad, which also runs ntv7, 8TV (in Chinese), and TV9 (Malay and English).

There is an in-house hotel entertainment service, Vision Four. Pay-per-view satellite networks, mainly in English, are operated by the private companies Astro (the main provider), Fine IPTV, and U Television. Most four- and five-star hotels will provide a wide range of satellite channels. Other hotels often provide a more limited package, which usually includes one or more of the worldwide news channels (BBC World News, CNN, Fox News).

Telephone, E-mail, and Mail

The provision of fixed-line telephones, largely monopolized by Telekom Malaysia (TM), in which the government holds a large stake, covers only about a quarter of the population. The national and international service in towns and cities and from business premises and hotels is usually very good. However, there has been a boom in cell phone use. Smartphone users are approaching 22 million, and iPhones 500,000. The main providers of cell phone services are TM’s Celcom, as well as Maxis, DiGi, and U Mobile. Celcom and Maxis are the largest providers.

There has also been a rapid increase in Internet and e-mail use, with 24.5 million users. Internet providers include TM Net, UNIFI, Maxis, Time, YES, Digi, and Celcom. Internet penetration is now 84 percent. Cyber cafés are popular among the young, and Malaysians can access a wide range of services and information provided by both national and international apps.

The postal service run by Pos Malaysia and referred to as “snail mail” is quite reliable; it has a more expensive express service (poslaju) as well.

The Online Generation

The increasing use of smartphones and the Internet has brought about a significant change in Malaysian habits and practices, particularly among the under-forties. According to Digital Malaysia 2020, in a country whose population is estimated at just over 32 million, there are around 26 million active social media users, almost 27 million Internet users, and 24 million mobile social media users. Mobile subscriptions total around 40 million—the penetration level, in a Southeast Asian context, is substantial. The three most popular social media sites are Facebook, Youtube, and Instagram, and the most frequently used messenger/chat apps are WhatsApp, FB Messenger, and WeChat.

It is often said that social media brings people together. Social media enthusiasts accumulate long lists of friends, real and virtual. Sometimes it takes on the character of a competition. Who has the most friends? Many Malaysians are posting events in their lives, anniversaries, photographs, their thoughts, and references to significant news items every week, if not every day. But at the same time the relationship with a smartphone, which becomes an essential part of one’s life, like eating and sleeping, acts to distance people from face-to-face encounters, discussion, and exchanging information and ideas.

Even within the family, although phones and the Internet enable relatives to keep in touch day-today, and, if living away from home, to catch up on family news regularly, when they are together they tend to be fixed on a screen and may not devote time to talk with one another with any purpose. Of course, something that they access on a phone and wish to share with others might well lead to conversation, but Malaysians also increasingly enjoy living in their own virtual worlds.

CONCLUSION

Malaysia is a culturally diverse and endlessly fascinating country. Excursions into the countryside, the national parks, and the upriver regions are a must, and Malaysian cuisine provides the best that Asia has to offer. The visitor will feel part of a vibrant, dynamic, fast developing, modernizing society, and will at the same time find much that is intriguingly different. For city lovers, its cultural, ethnic, and heritage resources are a major attraction; for outdoor types ecotourism is another fast-expanding sector; and for those in business the opportunities are exciting.

Traditional kite maker wearing a batik sarung.

This brief overview of the cultural context is designed to help you navigate the unfamiliar. Beyond the great cultural diversity there are shared values and principles that underlie Malaysian behavior and etiquette: the emphasis on status, hierarchy, respect, deference, politeness, modesty, harmony, calmness, consensus, face, and spirituality, balanced by a relatively relaxed and give-and-take attitude to life. This means that the foreign visitor needs to show understanding and sensitivity, but should not get too anxious if things go wrong. Malaysians will welcome you and accept your shortcomings if you show interest, respect, and a willingness to learn and to engage with them and their country.

APPENDIX: USEFUL APPS

Travel and Transport:

Air Asia is one of the most prominent budget airline providers, but there are many more, and the national airlines serving Malaysia (Thai, Singapore, Royal Brunei, Garuda, among others) all have their own apps. Malaysia Airlines and MAS Wings have relatively efficient apps. Malaysia also has a useful airports app, MYAirports.

Grab has replaced Uber in Malaysia offering a range of transportation services including GrabTaxi, GrabCar, GrabBike, GrabHitch, and GrabExpress (for delivery services); payment is by cash, card or a virtual wallet you can top up in advance called GrabPay.

Momondo Malaysia focuses on hotel and flight bookings in Malaysia.

Moovby is an easy to use app for car rentals, alongside the internationally known Hertz and Avis (both on the expensive side of rental in Malaysia), and Kwikcar, Kayak, Skyscanner, GoCar, Socar, Hawk Rent a Car, and DriveMyCar.

Oyo is a Malaysian hotel search and discount booking app that is now expanding to neighboring countries. It has over 10,000 rooms and more than 300 hotels, ranging from budget to premier, on its lists.

Traveloka Malaysia is a widely used one-stop hotel and flight booking site. But those accustomed to international hotel booking and other services might well wish to stay with Agoda Malaysia, Booking.com Malaysia, Trivago Malaysia, or Expedia Malaysia.

Waze is the most popular live automobile navigation system, with traffic updates, alerts on police road blocks, accidents, roadworks, and, most recently, information on tolls and toll roads.

Banking, Shopping, and Food:

AmOnline (AmBank) has an app that has received some approval in the banking world in Malaysia; others include PBengageMY (Public Bank), Maybank2u, CIMB, RHBNow, and OCBC Bank Malaysia.

Askme Malaysia provides a wide range of information and listings on businesses, deals, and classifieds, where to eat, travel destinations, shopping, and beauty, spa, and healthcare outlets.

Dahmakan is a good food delivery service using cash, online banking, PayPal, and credit cards. But in the world of food delivery Malaysia is spoilt for choice. Other competitors are foodpanda, Quick Sent, Honestbee, UberEATS, GrabFood, The Naked Lunchbox, Epic Fit Meals Co, Shogun2u, Zomato, Mammam. And then, of course, there are the food-specific delivery services offered by Nando’s, Dominic’s Pizza, Pizza Hut, McDonald’s, Papa John’s, KFC, and many more.

Fave is now the face of Groupon Malaysia and offers deals and discounts for dining, food, leisure and entertainment, beauty, spa, healthcare, and travel. FavePay offers a mobile method of payment.

Shoppee is one of the most popular multifaceted online shopping malls in Malaysia, originally launched in Singapore; many unbranded, affordable budget items are advertised as well as top-end sophisticated products. It should be accessed along with the other major e-commerce app, Lazada.

Tesco Online Malaysia provides grocery deliveries, as does HappyFresh (supplying from various supermarkets) and Redtick.

Socializing and Entertainment:

Astro and Astro Go, an “All-Asian Satellite Television and Radio Operator” is the largest, provider of satellite broadcasting in Malaysia, and has exclusive rights to broadcast international sports events. For Astro customers Astro Go is a free service providing sports, dramas, movies, and much more.

Lunch Kaki is a Singapore-based social networking app that you can use for searching others, according to such factors as gender, age, background, preferred proximity, and then send a lunch request.

MalaysianCupid is probably the most popular dating site for singles.

Muslima is a popular dating site for Muslim singles observing approved behavior and practices of relations between men and women; others are Malaysian Muslim Match and Teman Hidupku. Malaysians also use Tinder as well as other international dating apps.

FURTHER READING

History and Politics

Abbott, Leo. History and Culture of Malaysia: Government, Politics, Economy, People and Tradition, Tourism. Scotts Valley, Calif.: CreateSpace Publishing, 2016.

Abdul Rashid Moten. Government and Politics in Malaysia. Singapore: Cengage Learning Asia, 2013.

Andaya, Barbara Watson and Leonard Y. Andaya. A History of Malaysia. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017 (third edition).

Baker, Jim. Crossroads: A Popular History of Malaysia and Singapore. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish International (Asia), 2014.

Gullick, J. M. Old Kuala Lumpur. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Hooker, Virginia Matheson. A Short History of Malaysia: Looking East and West. St Leonards, NSW: Allen and Unwin, 2003.

See also: Chan, Jennifer Kim Lian and Victor T. King, “The Coronavirus Pandemic and Tourism in Southeast Asia: Case Material from Malaysia,” Horizon. Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research, vol. 2, special issue, pp. 87–102, 2020.

Literature

Hooker, Virginia Matheson. Writing a New Society: Social Change through the Novel in Malay. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2000.

Popular Reading and Travel

A very useful paperback series published by Oxford University Press in Singapore and Kuala Lumpur (Oxford in Asia Paperbacks), many of which are still in print. They comprise reprints of classic travel and other writings on Malaysia and the region as well as anthologies of travel writing for light reading. The series includes:

Gullick, J. M. Adventures and Encounters: Europeans in South-East Asia, and They Came to Malaya.

King, Victor T. The Best of Borneo Travel and Moving Pictures. More Borneo Travel.

Saunders, Graham. Tropical Interludes: European Life and Society in South-East Asia.

Waterson, Roxana. The Architecture of South-East Asia Through Travellers’ Eyes.

Two edited books are:

Gullick, J. M. Adventurous Women in South-East Asia: Six Lives.

King, Victor T. Explorers of South-East Asia: Six Lives.

An insightful book on recent Malaysian politics is:

Bradley Hope and Tom Wright. Billion Dollar Whale: The Man who Fooled Wall Street, Hollywood, and the World. New York: Hachette Books, 2016.

Excellent novels are:

Anthony Burgess. The Malayan Trilogy, London: Vintage, 2000.

Tan Twan Eng. The Gift of Rain and The Garden of Evening Mists. Newcastle: Myrmidon Books, 2007 and 2012.

Yangsze Choo. The Night Tiger: A Novel. New York: Flatiron Books/Macmillan, 2019.

PICTURE CREDITS

Cover image: City skyline, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. © iStock.

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