BUILD YOUR
OWN CANOE

Dennis Davis

The Crowood Press

First Published in 1997 by
The Crowood Press Ltd
Ramsbury, Marlborough
Wiltshire SN8 2HR

www.crowood.com

This e-book edition first published in 2011

© Dennis Davis 1997

All rights reserved. This e-book is copyright material and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law. Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and publisher’s rights, and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly.

A catalogue reference for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978 1 84797 366 5

Acknowledgements

For C, the best proof reader, and in memory of D, who enjoyed being paddled.

The plans and instructions given in this book are to enable the reader to build one DD23 ‘Bliss’ canoe for personal use. If more than one is to be built, or if further canoes are to be built for resale, additional royalties are then due to the author, who may be contacted at the address given on page 138 under ‘C & D Davis’.

Neither the author, nor the publisher, can be responsible for the way in which the canoe, or any of the equipment described in this book, is built or used.

All of the photographs are by the author and he would like to express his appreciation to the canoeists in the action pictures and to the owners and makers of the canoes and equipment featured, principally:

Keith Anderson (Suffolk Canoe Company); Alan Bridges (Birch Creek Canoe Company); Graham Mackereth (Pyranha Mouldings Ltd); Graham Warren (Moosehead cedar-canvas canoes).

All photography and line drawings by Dennis Davis.

Contents

   Introduction

   The History of the Canoe

   Understanding Design

   What You Need

   Building the Basic Hull

   Fitting Out the Hull

   Accessories and Equipment

   Getting on the Water

   Transportation, Storage, Camping, and River Access

   Repair and Maintenance

   Glossary

   Useful Addresses

   Further Reading

   Index

Introduction

Visit any exhibition or boat show which features canoes and you will see any number of mass-manufactured craft in various plastics intended to tempt the viewer on to the water. What you will not see are very many canoes made from plywood using the simple constructional technique known as ‘stitch-and-tape’. My first plywood stitch and tape boat was designed and built in 1964, and I have since been a confirmed enthusiast for the method, considering it to be the easiest and most economical way for the amateur boat builder to get afloat. If the price of ‘off the shelf’ canoes has thus far kept you and your family from enjoying recreational canoeing, the answer is here in this book; I will guide you through the process of making an inexpensive, lightweight, versatile canoe and give you the information you need to get the most from your canoe.

It is appropriate here to define what I mean by the term ‘canoe’, a word that has tended to have a different meaning depending on which side of the Atlantic the paddler is based. In Britain – for historical reasons which we shall consider briefly in Chapter 1 – small paddle-propelled craft that are pointed at both ends and in which the paddler faces the direction of travel have, until recently, been referred to generically as ‘canoes’. Thus both decked and open craft were referred to by the same name and to distinguish them the open craft were called Canadian canoes. In the early days of recreational canoeing in North America canoeists borrowed not only British designs but British terminology, and it was not until modern kayaks made an appearance that the American canoeist began to differentiate between canoe and kayak. Americans also differentiate between the American wood-canvas canoe and the Canadian all-wood type. However, the term ‘canoe’ has long meant an undecked craft such as the DD23 ‘Bliss’, which features in this book. The decked type is correctly known as a kayak; British paddlers are slowly adopting this nomenclature but many still use canoe when they mean kayak. It is, of course, possible to make a plywood kayak but this book will stick to the canoe!

The Open Canoe Association of Great Britain, which has developed from the Canadian-Canoe Association founded in 1956, is specifically concerned with canoeing, while the British Canoe Union covers both canoeing and kayaking and is the governing body of both sports in Britain. Other groups covering minority interests include the Open Canoe Sailing Group (whose members sail paddling canoes fitted with sailing gear as opposed to purpose-designed sailing canoes), the Historic Canoe & Kayak Association and, in the United States, the Wooden Canoe Heritage Association. All organize events to suit the interests of their members and there is usually no objection to non-members attending an event to find out what goes on and to ascertain whether the activities are compatible with their own interests.

In addition to the purely recreational meets, there are a number of competitive events open to the canoeist, ranging from the mildly exerting to the downright difficult. As with many other outdoor pursuits, canoeing can be undertaken at whatever level best suits the canoeist concerned. The British Canoe Union is the prime source of relevant information on local clubs, river access, competence training and coaching, and also organizes the annual International Canoe Exhibition, where much information can be gathered on the many and varied aspects of canoeing and related watersports.

Canoeing is no more dangerous than any other pastime or sport which involves being on or near water, but it does devolve upon the participant to take due care and ensure that he or she is as well prepared as possible. Throughout this book, I have emphasized the advisability of obtaining on-the-water training or instruction at the beginning of your canoeing career.

Incidentally, please take the male personal pronoun as being applicable to both male and female to save me the trouble and the waste of space which giving both wherever applicable would incur.

Perhaps some explanation should be given as to the designation of the DD23 ‘Bliss’ canoe. The DD23 refers to the twenty-third design in my portfolio (not all of which are currently available as plans). Numbers are a useful means of design identification but from time to time I give in to the urge to bestow a name on a design. ‘Bliss’ is named after William Bliss, who was one of the pioneers of open canoeing in Britain and, during the 1930s, wrote a couple of evocative books describing his trips on various rivers and canals. ‘Bliss’ also perfectly describes the gentle, tranquil, or exciting pastime of recreational canoeing, which I hope you will discover when you have built your own ‘Bliss’.

1 History of the Canoe

Both the canoe and the kayak originated as working boats and our European leisure craft have come to us via the decked skin-kayak of the Eskimo (Inuit) and the dugout and birch-bark canoe of the North American Indian. In addition to these there are, in many parts of the world, a number of craft loosely referred to as canoes, ranging from reed boats to beautifully constructed dug-outs. Those that developed in the northern hemisphere - from Greenland westward to the Baffin Islands, taking in the northern half of North America on the way, including Canada and Alaska – are the types that bear greatest resemblance to the ones that we see and use today.

The Inuit built the skin-covered, fully decked kayak as a vessel for hunting sea mammals. It made efficient use of the materials available and provided the adept solo paddler with a secure hunting platform. For transporting goods and families a larger, open-skin boat called the umiak was used. In this respect the umiak has more in common with the canoe, which was primarily a means of transporting people and goods through the waterways of the North American forests. Even today in parts of North America the canoe is seen as more of a working craft than as a means of recreation, and we must return to Britain to find the roots of the canoe/kayak as a recreational craft.

John MacGregor, an evangelical barrister, is reputed to have been the first recreational kayaker. He had seen both dug-out and birch-bark canoes, and skin-kayaks, while travelling in North America, and on his return to London he had made a relatively short, beamy kayak which he called Rob Roy. The first Rob Roy (there were several later versions), was about 4,570mm long × 710mm beam × 230mm deep, weighing 36.3kg, just small enough to fit into German railway wagons. She was built of oak using clinker, or lapstrake, construction, where the planks overlap each other (the same method as used for Thames skiffs,) and was fitted with a thin cedar deck. This original Rob Roy, though no longer seaworthy, has survived and is in a private collection. At least two other of MacGregor’s boats are in museum collections. MacGregor used a double paddle supplemented by a small lug sail as his means of propulsion, and in 1865 he paddled down the Thames at the start of a journey that he would recount in A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe, which describes his adventures on the lakes and rivers of Europe. First published in 1866, the book has since run to many editions. MacGregor’s other two books of interest to canoeists are Rob Roy on the Baltic and Rob Roy on the Jordan, both of which again ran to a number of editions.

Fig 1 Greenland-type skin kayak.

Fig 2 An Algonquin type birch-bark canoe.

Thus was recreational kayaking/canoeing launched, and it soon became something of a craze among the leisured classes. Several of MacGregor’s contemporaries and fellow founder members of the Canoe Club wrote of their canoeing exploits; fine copies of these titles may now cost more than the materials for a plywood canoe, even assuming you can find one! The new sport was accorded its ultimate accolade when the Prince of Wales became Commodore of the Canoe Club and Queen Victoria granted its Royal designation in 1873. The Royal Canoe Club still exists with its club house on the banks of the Thames.

Fig 3 Section showing clinker (lapstrake) planking.

The wooden kayak of the Rob Roy type continued to be one of the most popular recreational small boats in England, and was taken up as a leisure craft in North America, especially in the north-east region. However, it must be said that boating as a leisure pursuit – even in such small craft as kayaks – was limited, as in Britain, to those business and professional men with both time and money to spare.

By the late 1800s, on both sides of the Atlantic, the Rob Roy type paddling kayak had metamorphosed into much more of a specialized sailing craft with a centreboard and a quite large sail area with (in Britain at least) often considerable ballast. This ultimately developed into the current International 10sq.-metre Canoe, one of the fastest sailing monohulls excluding sailboards. In Britain the paddling kayak then fell into decline and the sport was not revived until the birth of the folding kayak in Germany in the early twentieth century. By the 1930s the folding kayak was ubiquitous, being used even by the competitors in the 1936 Olympic Games. Folding kayaks were relatively costly but the less well-off could get afloat in home-made, or commercially constructed, rigid kayaks made of lath and canvas, but of a similar shape and size to the folding kayaks.

In the North America of the 1800s, the canoe was developing too but still as a work boat. The birch-bark had been made in a variety of sizes from the Montreal (canot du maître), about 11m long × 1.5m beam, to the solo Indian canoe which might be a mere 3.5m long × 700mm beam. At the height of the fur trade, when the Montreal canoes were being used to transport furs from Grand Portage on Lake Superior to Montreal, the numbers of paper birch trees (Betula papyrifera) being killed by having their bark removed must have been large indeed.

The bark canoe had reached its zenith in the canoe building of the North Eastern tribes, in particular the eastern Abenaki Indians. However, as the north woods continued to be opened up by lumbermen, surveyors and prospectors, and the availability of large birch trees decreased, an alternative skin material had to be found. A geographer and map-maker, David Thompson, records making a cedar-wood canoe in 1811 with its planks ‘sewn’ together with split pine root. There is no record as to whether this was clinker (overlapping lapstrake) construction but it seems that this is most likely since caulking thin planks successfully is almost impossible – the first stitch and glue canoe perhaps? In New York and Pennsylvania craftsmen were building all-wood canoes of clinker or smooth bevel-lapped construction; notable among these builders was J. Henry Rushton working in Canton, New York. Rushton was building lapstrake canoes commercially in 1876, and from 1887 he offered the canoes with bevel-edge planks which gave a smooth skin. Unfortunately, while these canoes were beautifully built they were relatively expensive, did not stand up to the rough handling of less experienced owners and were less easily repaired than the bark canoe. Further north in Maine and Canada, a solution closer to the bark canoe had evolved. The wood and canvas canoe had been developed and was being built by such famous companies as E.M. White, Old Town, B.N. Morris and Chestnut. It was not until 1902 that Rushton began building his Indian and Indian Girl wood-canvas canoes, mainly in response to public demand for canoes less expensive than the all-wood types.

Fig 4 Section showing smooth bevel-lapped planking.

It may seem but a short step from building in the Indian way – constructing the wooden framework inside the bark skin -to building on a male mould or form from the inside-out, but it seems to have developed over a longish period. Initially canvas was used as a repair material; the first builders to utilize it as a skin continued to use the Indian method of starting with the shaped skin. Nobody seems quite sure who took the first step to building on a male mould, or form, but it appears likely to have been Evan (Eve) H. Gerrish of Bangor, Maine, who was building wood-canvas canoes commercially by 1878. B.N. Morris started in 1882, and E.M. White in 1888.

The wood-canvas canoe was thus a direct development of the birch-bark canoe. The latter is built by first arranging the bark skin on the building plot and constructing the framework of planking and ribs within this, each canoe being individually built to suit the bark skin available, or the size required. The wood-canvas canoe is built by bending the ribs over a mould, then nailing the thin cedar planking to them so that every canoe from that mould will be the same shape within a certain tolerance. Instead of birch-bark the external skin is canvas, stretched over the planking and ribs and finished with filler and paint. Such craft are still being built today, as indeed is the birch-bark (albeit on a very small scale), but they are expensive when compared with modern plastic or aluminium canoes.

A wood-canvas canoe based on a Peterborough design.

Fig 5 Building a birch-bark canoe.

At the same time as the wood-canvas canoe was being developed in the USA, the all-wood canoe was being built in various forms just across the border in Canada, in particular around the Peterborough region. A number of builders were experimenting with rib and batten construction; double skin; tongued and grooved longitudinal planks, and tongued and grooved ribs only, the latter types of construction must have required extremely good work manship. I have seen a racing canoe made from longitudinal planks joined on brass T-shaped strips running between the planks. Experimentation was rife at this time, and by about 1870 the Canadian canoe was recognized as a type distinct from the American. In fact from the start of recreational canoeing in Britain and North America, both the decked canoes (kayaks) and the open type were referred to as canoes; it was not until the modern kayak was introduced in America after about 1945 that the kayak was distinguished from the canoe in that country. In Britain, confusingly, we continued to refer to both types as ‘canoes’, sometimes differentiating the open type by calling it a ‘Canadian’ canoe. Only now is Britain catching up with the rest of the world in correctly referring to the decked craft as kayaks and the activity kayaking.

North American four-plank racing canoe of the early 1900s with brass T-section strips between the planks.

The early recreational canoeists in North America viewed the wood-canvas canoe as a working boat so it was not until the turn of the century when the emphasis began to shift from canoe-sailing to paddling, that the wood-canvas canoe began to be used for leisure boating. They were then developed for this market, becoming more flat-bottomed, beamier and taking on the distinctively upswept, or elongated, ends beloved of artists (not necessarily good design moves other than for the family and courting couples on smooth waters; ‘girling’ was a notable activity among the younger canoeists!) In 1905, the open gunwale form of construction was adopted where the inwale and outer rubbing strip were left uncapped so that when the canoe is inverted any water can drain through the gaps formed between the inwale and rubbing strip by the thickness of the ribs sandwiched between them. This reduces the chance of the gunwale area rotting through the retention of water when the canoe is stored inverted. By the 1920s the wood-canvas canoe was in its modern form.

Canoeing in the United States declined throughout the 1930s and it was not until the advent of the aluminium canoe in about 1945 that it started to take off once more. In the 1960s glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) canoes were beginning to be made, and the wood-canvas canoe went into an almost terminal decline until recent years when there has been something of a resurgence of interest and several new builders have entered the market.

In Britain (or perhaps we should say, in England, for they were used mainly on the Thames in the late nineteenth century and early 1900s), all-wood canoes were imported from the area around Peterborough, Ontario and a few similar craft were also made locally at boat-yards on the Thames and other lowland rivers. John Hayward, in his Canoeing with Sail and Paddle, published in 1893, suggests that there were at least a thousand Canadian canoes on the Thames alone at that time. These canoes were beautifully built of narrow planks butted together along their length and held together inside by a multitude of very closely spaced ribs fastened with thousands of clenched panel pins; when seen with their usual all-varnish finish they look superb. Interestingly, in contrast to the wood-canvas type they had a wide external gunwale, or rubbing strip, with no inwale, and were also generally fitted with longer end-decks. While delightful for paddling on the Thames, along the Backs at Cambridge, or on similar quiet waters, these canoes suffered badly if used for white water work and repairs were difficult. Perhaps because of this, open canoeing never really took off in Britain as it did in North America where the durable and fairly easily repaired wood and canvas canoe held sway until after 1945, although in competition with the then new aluminium canoes introduced by the Grumman Aircraft Company following their experience in building aluminium aircraft during the war. The modern equivalent of the Peterborough canoe is the cedar-strip canoe built from thin, narrow planks, edge-glued and clad inside and out with a glass-fibre cloth and epoxy resin laminate.

A wood-canvas canoe showing open gunwales, thwarts bolted under the inwales, and solid timber end-decks. This canoe is actually unfinished but the new owner could not resist trying her.

Fig 6 Closed gunwale on a bark canoe.

Fig 7 Open gunwale on a wood-canvas canoe.

Strickland all-wood canoe built at Lakefield, Ontario in about 1893. Note the wide rubbing strips well tapered at the ends, lack of inwales, long decks, and the numerous half-round ribs supporting the narrow planking. Restoration is not quite complete.

A strip-planked canoe, perhaps the modern equivalent of the all-wood Peterborough type.

In Europe, particularly in France and Scandinavia, the canoe was more popular than in Britain, and while a few moulded-veneer Scandinavian canoes were imported for a short period in the 1960s, these did not succeed in challenging the popularity of the folding kayak, the rigid canvas and lath, or plywood kayak which could be economically home-built, or the more recently introduced GRP kayaks. In the early 1960s Ken Littledyke, taking advantage of the newly available polyester resins, reinvented the stitch-and-tape method of plywood small boat construction with his Kayel kayaks, and rigid plywood kayaks enjoyed a very brief heyday. By this time the folding kayak had been fairly well eclipsed by rigid versions, mainly for reasons of cost but also because it is just as easy to carry a rigid kayak on a roof rack as a folded one in the car boot. Travel by train, where the folding kayak came into its own, was declining in Britain as more families could afford to run a car. There has been a more recent interest in the folding kayak and canoe in America where they and their crews are transported by light aircraft to the areas where there are lakes and rapid rivers not easily accessed by road.

As mentioned, moulded-veneer Scandinavian canoes did not enthuse many British paddlers, possibly because of cost, and so far as I know there were no British manufacturers of canoes until the later 1960s when one or two companies marketed GRP canoes and at least one hybrid with GRP lower hull (taken from a kayak mould I believe) and plywood topsides. The early GRP canoes had a tendency to be rather heavy and not especially well designed in comparison with the traditional wood-canvas or all-wood canoe (the only real yardstick). There is a lath and canvas design by P.W. Blandford published in his book, Canoes and Canoeing (1962), which looks attractively traditional in photographs but I have never seen one on the water. It was at about this time that Ken Littledyke produced plans for a canoe using his stitch-and-tape method, the first of the modern plywood canoes, of which the DD23 ‘Bliss’ described in this book is a descendent. There is no way of knowing just who first devised this method of making boats, nor indeed where it was first employed. The photograph (below) shows the bow of a traditionally stitched fishing boat from Oman, now in the Exeter Maritime Museum, and as mentioned earlier, stitched cedar plank canoes were known in the early 1800s in North America. Perhaps the most famous boat to be designed for this method of construction is the Mirror dinghy. This was first devised in a functional but rather boxy form by Barry Bucknell, and was then improved and refined by boat designer Jack Holt. In a letter published in Yachts and Yachting dated May 3 1963, Barry Bucknell writes, ‘As far as my knowledge goes, all credit for the development of this particular combination of copper wire and fibre-glass goes to Ken Littledyke.’ Since then the method has migrated around the world.

A hybrid canoe with a GRP lower hull and plywood top strake and decks.

A DD23 ‘Bliss’ canoe being energetically paddled two-up.

The stem and forward planking of a Sambuk fishing boat from Oman. The original coconut-fibre has been replaced by terylene twine where repairs have been made.

More recently in North America there has been a resurgence of interest in the lapstrake canoe but with a difference: it is now made from plywood strakes (planks) glued at the laps and with no further framing other than rubbing strips and a thwart or two. In Britain, sailing dinghies have been built using this form of construction for about the past forty-five years so it cannot be said to be a new method, but it does produce a light, strong craft, requiring only a fairly simple mould just a little more complex than that required for normal clinker or lapstrake construction. This by no means exhausts the variety of building methods utilized for making canoes over the years but will suffice for this modest tome.

For most of the years since the 1960s the canoe in Britain retained its minority interest until quite recently when its popularity began to grow. The numbers in use have increased and there are even (since 1995) open canoe classes at some slalom and white-water events. This rise in popularity is unlikely ever to be properly explained but may be owed in part to the introduction of relatively inexpensive plastic canoes costing much the same as a kayak, and in part to some effective marketing by companies specializing in selling canoes rather than kayaks. There is no doubt, too, that the open canoe can be a far more versatile craft than the kayak in all respects but for sea travel: the canoe can venture to sea only in settled calm conditions, or when fitted with an adequate spray deck which can be relied upon to deal with heavy water rather than just spray or rain; certainly it should not normally be considered suitable for coastal use.

WHY PLYWOOD?

Coming now to a thriving modern canoe culture, what are the advantages of building your own plywood craft? Economy must be the first answer. In January 1996 the builder of a ‘Bliss’ wrote to tell me he had built his canoe for £63.00; compare this with any commercially made equivalent. Not only that, it looks very good and he sent a photograph to prove it worked! I am not suggesting that this is a figure every builder will achieve, or will even wish to emulate, but it is possible to build a plywood canoe very economically.

Building your own canoe is also a pleasure, not only because you will have the feeling of achievement when it is completed but you will know every part of it and just how it was put together. Another reason often cited by people choosing to build a plywood canoe is the relatively light weight of the completed boat. Exotic materials such as Kevlar do make for lighter fibre-reinforced plastics (FRP) craft but are prohibitively expensive for normal recreational use; plywood offers an acceptable compromise for the amateur canoe builder. Furthermore, while building it you will have the opportunity to customize the basic hull to suit yourself; this will be explained further in Chapter 5.

Given adequate adult supervision, the building of a stitch-and-tape plywood boat can be an enjoyable undertaking for children; I have known of several in their early teens who have successfully completed such a project with very little assistance. Younger children must, of course, be supervised at all times when using tools and resins, but just as the whole family can enjoy using the canoe, so, too, can they derive enjoyment and education from building it.

2 Understanding Design

Before getting down to the actual business of making a canoe it is necessary to have a design from which to build. Full details for building the DD23 ‘Bliss’ canoe are given in this book but there are other designs with which it might be compared, and you may possibly wish to try making another boat at some stage, so determining what constitutes good design will be pertinent.

Canoes come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. All boats have several sizes, or dimensions, which are relevant to design; length can mean length overall (LOA), length on the waterline (LWL), length on deck (LOD). In any one boat, each of these could be the same dimension, or they could each be different. Usually for canoes, only an overall length is given since the waterline length may vary depending upon the load and is anyway not very relevant since it will usually be very similar to the LOA, but note that the LOD of a canoe is quite often less than the LOA because of the recurved ends – the way the stem and stern of the traditional canoe curve inward.

A strip-planked racing canoe based on a 1902 design by Linton Hope intended as a one-design paddle racing canoe. This canoe will be used as a mould for producing plastic hulls, thus making an historic craft available at an economic price.

Fig 8 Three examples of typical canoe shapes for different aspects of the sport:

a. Long, straight keel with length overall (LOA) equal to the waterline length (LWL). The asymmetric hull has fine ends with a flared cross-section and shallow curved bottom. The sheerline is almost flat. Gunwale beam and maximum beam (BMAX) are equal with the waterline beam (BWL) narrower. A typical marathon-racing, or fast-touring, type of canoe.

b. Here the LWL is shorter than the LOA with a well-rockered keel-line to promote easy turning. The hull is symmetrical with full ends and with its beam carried well into the ends and fairly flat sheer. The cross-section shows a deep, vertical-sided hull with a shallow, curved bottom. The BWL, BMAX and gunwale beam are equal in this case. A typical white-water canoe.

c. This is a symmetrical hull with the length on deck (LOD) shorter than the LOA and LWL with the keel-line showing some rocker. The cross-section shows a hull which is less deep than b but deeper than a, and beamier than both with a shallow curved bottom, tumblehome sides and fairly well-curved sheer. Gunwale beam, BMAX, and BWL are each different. A typical recreational canoe.

The second main dimension is the beam, or width, of the boat. Here, also, the canoe may have three dimensions, beam at the waterline (BWL), maximum beam (BMAX), and the beam at the gunwales. Again these could be the same dimension (if the canoe is slab-sided) but are more likely to be two or three different dimensions. Let us look at how this comes about: if the canoe is slab-sided with vertical sides it is obvious how all three dimensions will be identical. If the sides are given flare, that is the gunwales are wider than the bottom, then the gunwale beam will equal the BMAX; if the sides are given tumblehome (that is, the sides curve inward at the gunwale), then the gunwale beam will be less than BMAX. Each of the dimensions and the shapes arising from them, like the cross-section at the middle of the canoe and the shape of the ends, are design considerations that can have a considerable effect on the handling of the canoe. Try to seek out, and study, as many different types of canoe as possible; you will then be better able to appreciate the many points of difference among them.

We have already noted that the side elevation of the canoe might have recurved ends. It also has sheer (that is the curve, usually concave) along the gunwale when seen from the side. Many of the Indian birch-bark canoes had almost flat sheer with a fairly sharp rise at the ends, but this shape may have been in part a result of the construction method. The sheer is better from a practical viewpoint if it curves upward from the centre along the full length rather than rising abruptly near the ends. This is partly because of the way the canoe behaves in waves: as the canoe heads into waves it tends to go down at the bow initially until the buoyancy of the hull takes over and the bow lifts, but before it lifts the water will rise up the sides towards the sheer just behind the bow, and if sufficiently rough it will splash into the canoe at this point. If the sheer is rising gently toward the bow there is less likelihood of shipping water in this way. This is an obvious simplification of what may be, in any given situation, a very complicated sequence of events but will help illustrate the importance of the whole sheerline.

A wood-canvas canoe showing the recurved ends and gentle sheer in a continuous curve from end to end.

How important is the additional upward curve at the ends? Not very, other than for aesthetics. Many modern GRP or FRP canoes have an almost flat sheerline with flare introduced at the bow to deflect waves, and tumblehome in the middle to assist the solo paddler (of which more later). The reason for choosing a flattish sheerline is to reduce the effect of wind on the canoe. When paddling the canoe with the wind on one side, or from almost ahead or astern, the canoe tries to act like a weather vane and head into the wind. For the solo paddler in particular this makes paddling in the required direction more difficult and if the ends of the canoe curve upward in a grand sweep there will be even more boat above the waterline for the wind to act upon and thus increase the paddler’s difficulty.

While considering the side elevation of the canoe, look at the keel-line. This is important for several reasons: if the keel-line is straight the canoe will tend to track straight when paddled but will be difficult to turn; if it is also long and straight the effect is compounded. Such canoes will, however, be faster than shorter, beamier canoes. If the keel-line is curved with a convex curve (rockered), the canoe will be more difficult to paddle in a straight line but will be easier to turn because the effective keel is short; such craft, often with exaggerated rocker, are used for white-water canoeing where manoeuvrability is more important than straight line speed. A second effect arising from the curvature of the keel-line is that the rockered keel makes for a more stable canoe, all other things being equal. This is because a canoe with a straight keel has its narrow ends in the water just as much as the broader midsection, while the rockered keel keeps the narrow ends out of the water a little so the wider mid-section has a greater effect on stability. A craft with a hogged keel, where the keel-line is concave (not a normal configuration), will tend to be unstable because the ends will be immersed to a greater extent than the mid section. (I wonder if this may be the reason for the sharply upturned ends of some Inuit kayaks, to make them unstable when inverted and thus easier to roll back up?)

Stability is also dependent to a large extent upon the shape of the cross-section and on the beam of the canoe: wider, flatter canoes are more stable than narrow, round-bottomed types. So is the ‘best’ canoe well rockered, flat bottomed and broad beamed? First let us dispel any notion of there being a ‘best’ canoe; there may be a ‘best type’ for a specific purpose but even this cannot be certain since all boat design is a compromise and canoes are no exception. We have discovered that moderate rocker will confer a degree of stability. This can be allied with suitable length to a reasonable beam (too much beam and you will be paddling an unresponsive ‘barge’). Within reason a longer canoe can be narrower to carry the same load on the same waterline. For example, a 4.5m long canoe with a BWL of 760mm may carry a load of 180kg on a waterline, or draft, of 100mm, while a 4m long canoe may require a BWL of 915mm to carry the same load with the same draft. To put it another way, a short canoe will have a smaller capacity than a longer one of the same beam. Thus short canoes are normally quoted as being capable of carrying less load than longer craft unless they are very beamy ‘sportsman’ canoes designed to be sufficiently stable on smooth water for anglers to stand up in while casting.

Fig 9 Showing reduced waterline of heeled, flat-bottomed canoe, as compared with heeled, shallow curved-bottom canoe.

The cross-sectional shape of the canoe is one of the decisive factors in determining its handling qualities, so much so that this is often the first aspect of design considered by the designer. It may appear that if the canoe is flat bottomed it will be stable, but this is not necessarily so in all conditions. Such a conformation may be satisfactory for big heavy craft such as bulk carriers and Thames sailing barges, but when reduced in scale to a canoe it is true only to a certain degree. At first acquaintance the flat bottomed canoe will feel very stable, with good initial stability, but if it heels a little the BWL will reduce and it will become increasingly unstable until it reaches the point of no return and capsizes. This point may be reached quite suddenly without prior warning, especially in rough water and wave conditions. However, if the canoe is given a shallow-curve, or flat-V bottom it will heel without reducing its BWL very much (it may even increase), and will quite possibly increase its stability before water can come over the gunwale, thus giving good final stability. The latter comes about in part because the sides of the canoe will be more curved than the keel is rockered, so heeling the canoe on to its side has the effect of increasing the rocker of the part of the hull in the water, increasing the effective draft and thus improving stability. This also has the incidental effect of reducing the LWL and making the canoe easier to turn. From this it will be seen that there is a compromise between good initial stability, where the canoe feels stable when the pad-dler first gets aboard, but possibly poor final stability; or less initial stability, where the canoe may feel slightly ‘tippy’ at first, but feels less so when heeled (good final stability) and when the paddler is used to handling it. The latter craft will prove far more responsive to the paddler and overall a more satisfactory craft (a little like the difference between a heavy, long-wheelbase, push bike and a lightweight racing cycle; the latter may feel a little ‘twitchy’ but be so much more satisfying to ride). The most satisfactory general-purpose canoe may be one that fits between these two.

The many ribs illustrate the shallow curved bottom of the Strickland all-wood canoe.

Lastly when dealing with the cross-sectional shape of the canoe is the question of whether the sides should be flared, straight, or tumblehome. Tumblehome on a traditional canoe serves three purposes: first, it looks attractive in most viewers’ eyes. Second, it helps stiffen the longitudinal structure by adding another athwartships curve and, third, it helps the solo paddler by enabling him to get the paddle vertically nearer the side of the canoe when kneeling, or sitting, closer to that side. Straight sides may be a compromise between flare and tumblehome, and flared sides have the advantage of slightly increasing stability as the canoe is heeled. To some extent these shapes may be dictated by the method of building the canoe. If the canoe is being built on a male mould – as are the wood-canvas or all-wood types – it is possible to have tumblehome only by removing the canoe from the mould before the ends are fastened (with the ends fastened together on the stem and stern posts it would be impossible to lift the canoe off the mould). If the canoe is being made from GRP, or FRP, in a female mould it is possible to build in tumblehome only to the extent allowed by the canoe being ‘sprung’ from the mould, or by having the hull mould in two sections bolted together along the keel-line. Flared or straight sides are easier in one-piece female moulds. In the past this problem has been circumvented by having a complete hull and deck mould in two halves, either with a join along the keel or with a ‘deck’ and a lower hull mould with the seam at mid-hull depth, but the canoes produced from this type of mould are usually rather clumsy in appearance. A plywood canoe can be built with any shape cross-section subject to its being formed from more or less short straight lines.

Now, we come to the ends of the canoe, not the side view but the degree of fullness or fineness, especially of the ends below the waterline. Once more this must be a matter of compromise and suitability for intended purpose. If the canoe is intended for white-water use where the ‘white water’ consists mainly of non-supporting foam, full ends should be given since buoyancy in the ends will be more important than straight line speed; it being better to stay afloat than to have speed potential. Full ends will confer greater capacity but may be a little less easy to paddle through the water, although this does also depend upon the shape behind the ends. Fine ends will generally be easier to paddle but the canoe will tend to go through waves and rough water rather than ride over it. A well-designed short canoe may be given reasonably full ends to spread its carrying capacity throughout its length to enable it to cope with a decent load without increasing its draft unduly.

Fig 10 General arrangement of a typical stitch-and-tape plywood canoe, such as the ‘Bliss’, and its cross-sectional shape. The various parts are named as in the text and glossary.

Finally, it is time to pull all these aspects together in one canoe. Length will help with both carrying capacity and speed since a longer boat is a faster boat; broad beam will also give capacity but will reduce speed potential. Greater length and beam will make for a heavier canoe than a shorter narrower one, but the latter may be slower. Speed is not only a question of getting to a destination more quickly; a fast canoe is also easier to paddle. A flat bottom will give good initial stability on flat water but poor final stability, especially in rough water; a shallow curved, or flat-V bottom may give slightly less initial stability but will handle better in all conditions. Full ends are essential for white-water paddling and help to increase capacity but will probably produce a slower canoe for flatwater paddling.

The ‘Bliss’ being paddled in a strong breeze. The paddler here is using a steering stroke (see Chapter 7).

A general-purpose canoe such as the ‘Bliss’ is a compromise in most respects: it has a flat-V bottom, it is fairly beamy to give good initial stability but with a relatively narrow waterline to aid paddling, and a shape that still retains good final stability; a little tumblehome can be built in as an aid to solo paddling from the ‘centre’ seat or thwart. It also has fairly full ends to maintain good carrying capacity for its length.

As already mentioned the ‘Bliss’ canoe is built using the stitch-and-tape method of construction and to the newcomer to small boat-building this may be just so much gobbledygook. In fact it is exactly what it says: plywood panels stitched together with the seams sealed and reinforced with a laminate of glass-fibre tape and resin. The method requires the minimum of woodworking skill, which is why some boat-builders belittle it, but there is no reason why a shapely craft cannot be produced and there is ample opportunity for keen woodworkers to show off their skill when it comes to fitting out the basic hull.

3 What You Need

SPACE

Before embarking on a canoe-building project, you must first find a suitable place to work.

If you have a garage and do not mind parking the car outside for a couple of weeks while building is in progress, this will suffice. When the building is completed, you can hang the canoe from the roof of the garage, or build a simple rack to store it inside on one of the garage walls. The ‘Bliss’ is 4,140mm long, allowing it to be made comfortably in the average garage. Even without covered space there is no need to miss out, for I built two canoes and a kayak on the lawn of a Hebridean cottage during reasonably settled spells of summer weather (not all in the same year!) They were securely wrapped in a large sheet of polythene each evening. Temperature may be more important than cover because resin and glue usually require reasonable warmth to ensure proper curing.

BUILDING SKILLS

Do you have the necessary boat building skills? Well, to be honest, almost none are required! If you can read the instructions, measure reasonably accurately, use a saw (either an electric jig-saw or a handsaw), a hammer, and a plane, you should have no trouble building the ‘Bliss’ canoe. The time you take will depend upon how fast you wish to work but even without working very hard, about seven days, or two weekends and the evenings in between, should see your canoe completed, or at least ready for the painting stage.

MATERIALS

One problem that the home builder may encounter is that of obtaining suitable materials. There are two approaches to this, one of which depends upon your ability to ferret out suitable local suppliers. If you are prepared and happy to scour the locality for suitable plywood and timber that is the main problem solved, for the other items can be bought via mail order without too much trouble (see Useful Addresses). The alternative is to throw yourself on the mercy of a supplier who will supply all the materials for you; this is almost like getting a kit of parts except that you will have to cut out the hull panels for yourself (see Useful Addresses).

Timber and Plywood

The type of plywood you use depends ultimately upon the amount you are prepared to spend on it. At the top of the plywood hierarchy is Lloyds Register of Shipping marine grade approved to the British Standard. There is at least one imported brand and one British-made type available in this category and if you want to build a really superb canoe why not go for one of these? You will require only two sheets for the ‘Bliss’, and even at the top prices this plywood commands you will still be getting an inexpensive canoe when compared with a commercially built craft. However, if your aspirations are lower, or you are feeling tentative about building your first boat, there are still some excellent plywoods available. Let us tidy away one question: these days both marine grade and exterior grade plywoods utilize waterproof glues so you need normally have no fear of delamination. I write ‘normally’ for I have once experienced delamination of what purported to be marine plywood and which was stamped with the ‘BS1088’ mark. Since this experience I have taken less notice of the marks stamped on the corner of the sheets and more of my own opinion.

It may not always be practical to do this but if you find a cheap source of plywood, the quality of which is doubtful, one way of assessing its durability is by a boil test: place a small piece of the suspect ply in a can of water and boil for a few minutes; then leave it in the water for as long as possible. If this treatment does not make it delaminate it should be safe to use for canoe building; this is not to say that the timber it is made from will not rot of course!

Where the cheaper plywoods do differ from their more expensive relations is in the types of timber they use, especially for the core veneer of three-ply. The external veneers are usually of a type of hardwood and their quality is easily assessed, but do examine the inner veneer closely at the edges, for in the cheap brands (often termed ‘Far Eastern’), this may be of a very poor quality, coarse-grained timber with voids where the inner veneer has not been properly butted at joins. If such voids are visible at the edges then you can be sure there will be more where they cannot be seen inside the board and while they obviously weaken the board they can also show as a surface declivity when the board is varnished or painted. Usually this type of plywood will also have paper-thin outer veneers of the relatively expensive hardwood and a thick inner core of the pulpy cheap timber. This type should be avoided since you should be able to find much better quality at a similar price, or for not a great deal more. The better qualities of plywood are often available with differing species of face veneer; fairly common is gaboon which, while not generally thought a durable species, is suitable for canoes since it provides a lightweight ply that is quite satisfactory for small boats when kept well painted or varnished.

Fig 11 Cheap plywood showing very thin outer veneers and edge voids in centre veneer.

One further point on plywood: you may come across birch plywood, usually imported from Scandinavia or Russia; this is idiosyncratic in that because the birch trees used are normally quite small, the grain of the external veneer runs across the sheets rather than along them (unlike other types of ply). For this reason alone, if for no other, it is best to avoid using birch ply for stitch-and-tape canoe building since it does not easily take up the correct curves, especially on small craft such as canoes.

Timber may also present a problem when you ask for 4,300mm lengths, or longer, of clear Columbian pine or spruce, especially when you require only some five lengths (for open double gunwales) of 15 × 15mm or 15 × 10mm! The timber must be as knot-free as possible to avoid the possibility of its breaking when fitted to the curve of the gunwales. Life may be easier if you have access to a circular-saw bench and planer, for then you can prepare your own finished timber. For those who do not, the only solution is carefully to pick over whatever you can find locally, or go to one of the specialist timber suppliers. I have tried both and in the end you tend to get what you pay for. It is, of course, possible and perfectly satisfactory to use shorter lengths of timber and scarf-joint them together. When this is well done the joint should be almost invisible but somehow I always feel this makes for an inferior job when compared to full lengths.

With regard to the use of hardwoods or softwood, my own choice is for softwoods, chosen, if possible, from a supplier claiming a renewable source. Some builders prefer to use a hardwood for the rubbing strips and, certainly, if caned or webbing seats are being fitted then a hardwood frame for these will probably wear better. Homegrown hardwood may be available but if tempted by one of these do choose a relatively light (or the least heavy!) species such as ash, for one of the overriding joys of a canoe should be its light weight. You may not anticipate portages of several miles but even lifting it on to the roof rack is less daunting if it is light. That said, seat framing is a small part of the whole so the timber weight will not be of utmost importance.

While discussing plywood and timber it may be pertinent to comment on their durability or otherwise. In general neither the plywood nor the timber is likely to present problems with regard to durability provided the finished craft is stored under cover as already suggested and further explained in Chapter 8. Plywood, if it is given a good finish, should be perfectly satisfactory in normal use as should most of the types of timber likely to be easily available. Of the home-grown types, ash is classified as non-durable but if it is used for seat frames, or even rubbing strips, and well varnished or painted there should again be no problems. I have seen a badly rotted ash rubbing strip but that was on a dinghy imprudently stored outdoors under trees. The African mahogany types are sometimes now available from managed plantations and can provide attractive, light timber with reasonably good durability and hardness. Try to avoid cross-grained examples if you want to obtain a good finish easily.

Resins

The other main material required is the resin used to seal and reinforce the seams in conjunction with glass-fibre tape. There is a general agreement that epoxy resin adheres to wood better than does polyester resin; against this is the fact that polyester resin is cheaper than epoxy, but it has a shorter shelf life, so do not be tempted to buy more than you need for a project. I have always used polyester resin for my prototypes and have, to date, found no problems with tape peeling but I do know builders whose craft have required retaping after a few years. This may have something to do with the dryness or otherwise of the plywood; it is obviously advisable to have the plywood as dry as possible for the taping procedure.

The styrene in polyester resin has an all-pervasive smell which is reputed to have no harmful effects if the resin is used in a well-ventilated workshop; I try to work outdoors in the shade when taping. Epoxy is said to give off noxious fumes so it would probably be wise to wear a fume mask when using either type of resin; certainly you should wear a suitable face mask when working on the cured laminate to avoid the breathing, or ingestion, of GRP dust, and eye protection to prevent the possibility of getting tiny flying chips in your eyes. In fact it is sensible to wear a head covering and overalls along with old but stout shoes while working with resins for once the stuff gets on to clothes it is virtually impossible to remove. Ordinary household vinegar may be used to remove uncured splashes of epoxy resin and for cleaning brushes. However, this is not advised for regular skin cleansing since the vinegar dissolves the epoxy, thus facilitating its penetration of the skin increasing the possibility of an allergic reaction. Since it is possible to become allergic to resins it is certainly advisable to avoid all skin contact by using a barrier cream and disposable plastic gloves. The latter should also be worn when handling the glass-fibre tape to avoid the irritation which can occur on skin contact. The supplier of the resin, whichever type is decided upon, will be able to advise on – and supply – protective cream and clothing. Do not be too alarmed by all these suggested precautions; it is mostly a question of common sense as when dealing with any chemical compounds, including modern paints. The deciding factor in choosing the type of resin may be the fact that epoxy can also be used as glue, so obviating the need for another adhesive.

Paints and Varnish

The last item to be considered under the general heading of materials is the paint or varnish to be used. It is traditional (if so modern a form of construction can have a tradition) for plywood craft to have a varnished interior and painted exterior. This may be something to do with the fact that a good paint system will wear better than will a varnish finish. Against this is the fact that touching-up scratches in varnish is very much easier than doing the same with paint, which almost always shows the ‘join’. These days there is a vast choice of both varnishes and paint systems for the boat builder to puzzle over. To a large extent one gets value for money – you pays your money and takes your choice! It is possible to buy traditional oil-based varnish which is a luscious, thick, almost treacly, liquid, which will stand considerable thinning in use and will provide a superb, hard-wearing finish. It is, however, an expensive product. Against this you can go along to the nearest do-it-yourself store and find a relatively inexpensive oil-based ‘marine varnish’, which will be a much thinner liquid, easier to apply neat but unable to withstand much thinning and therefore probably not offering so many coats per can. Which is the best value? You will have to decide for yourself; I have used both and while the more expensive product is a delight to use I cannot honestly say it will wear better when used on a canoe. Of course, the results may be completely different if the finishes are applied to a boat that is permanently out in all weather. There are other than traditional oil-based varnishes available; indeed if you are using epoxy it is possible to coat all surfaces with this prior to varnishing or painting to provide a surface that is more or less impervious to water. The various modern varnishes, 2-pot, polyurethane and so on are reputed to be excellent but my own experience with these has not been happy and I prefer to stay with the traditional variety; you can make up your own mind on this matter and if you have some woodworking experience you may already have favourites.

A similar story can be told with reference to paint but here it is advisable, whatever quality you choose to use, to follow a proper programme consisting of applying primer, undercoat and top coat. It is probably advisable to follow a programme using the products from one maker since these will have been designed to work together and there will be no problems with compatibility. Obtaining a good or better finish with varnish or paint depends almost entirely upon beginning with the best possible surface: you will never achieve a mirror finish if your plywood has not been perfectly prepared for the varnish or paint. This leads to the point that adding repeated coats will add weight and cost (both undesirable), so obtain the best possible surface before considering further finishing; this will be discussed again later. One point that will also be mentioned again but that bears repetition here is that epoxy resin must be protected by varnish or paint since it can suffer from ultra-violet degradation.

TOOLS

you will almost certainly have all the tools required for the job since a stitch-and-tape canoe can be built with very few. For marking out the panels, you will need:

•  A steel tape measure that is marked in millimetres

•  A softish pencil (HB or B will serve well.)

•  Pencil and marking gauges (a combined version of which may be home-made from the details given in Chapter 4).

•  A thin batten for drawing the full-size curves (one of the full-length gunwale strips can be utilized for this).

•  A hand drill with 2mm twist bits, or wire nail (modified as explained later), for drilling the stitch-holes.

For cutting the panels, you will need:

•  Either a fine-toothed handsaw, or an electric jig-saw fitted with a blade suitable for thin plywood (the latter saves expenditure of labour but not very much else since cutting thin plywood with a handsaw is quite easy).

When the hull panels have been cut out, you will make and glue the scarf joints. For this you will need:

•  A plane, which can be of the Surform type, but must be sharp.

•  A pair of 75-100mm G-cramps (although a pair of bolts with washers and nuts will provide a functional substitute as described in Chapter 4).

•  A hammer.

No further tools are required until you come to fixing the gunwale strips in place when something fairly weighty is necessary such as a second heavier hammer, suitable stone, or a proper steel dolly, against which the nails can be hammered.

For fixing the ends of the gunwale strips to the end-knees and for fitting out the canoe, you will require a few extra tools:

The essential tools required for building a stitch-and-tape canoe. In fact, the smoothing plane (upper right) could be omitted in favour of a larger Surform plane (centre left) with some spare blades, and the marking gauge (centre) can, of course, be replaced by the home-made gauge.

•  A suitable screwdriver.

•  A chisel.

•  Abacksaw, such as a fine-toothed tenon, or dovetail, saw, for fitting the seats.

•  A coping saw.

•  Aspokeshave.

•  A wood rasp or coarse file (for making the thwart blocks).

•  A couple of larger twist drill bits 8mm for the painter holes in the ends, plus a 5mm for the various sail fastening points on the spars, if sailing gear is being made.

•  A pair of pincers (for snipping off the heads of panel pins).

•  A pair of pliers (for removing nails or pins which go awry) will always come in handy.

That is the extent of the toolbox apart from expendables such as abrasive paper, brushes, and the pieces of timber mentioned in Chapter 4, which do not form part of the finished canoe.

So there is nothing now to prevent your beginning work but do read through this chapter and the two following to ensure that each stage is completely understood and to determine which of the various options are to be chosen. It is sound practice to try to visualize exactly what each stage involves before committing yourself to working on the materials, and especially before doing any cutting: the woodworker’s adage, ‘Measure twice, cut once’, is equally good advice for the boat-builder.

4 Building the Basic Hull

The shape of the boat is formed from the shape of the hull panels and does not normally require an additional mould or building frame. It is, however, advisable to check carefully that the hull conforms to the correct dimensions prior to sealing the nternal seams because once this is done the shape and size is set. As you will see, the ‘Bliss’ is built using a very slightly modified method: the copper wire of the original system has been replaced by nylon monofilament fishing line which, I think, makes the stitching easier. Some builders have used soft ferrous wire, such as baling wire, and removed each stitch after the interior seams have been glass-fibre-taped, and it really does not matter provided the panels are held together correctly while the seams are sealed; the Arabs who made their fishing boats by the method originally used coconut fibres but synthetic substitutes were later employed. The method of sealing and reinforcing the seams, or more correctly ‘chines’ in boatbuilding terms, is referred to throughout the building sequence as ‘taping’ and is carried out as described below.

TAPING

Taping should always be carried out in a suitably warm but well-ventilated area: a shady outdoor work place is ideal in the right weather. The resin supplier will give details of the range of curing temperatures for the resin you will be using; if you are working in an unheated garage in midwinter you may have problems! I normally use 50mm-wide tape but the ‘Bliss’ prototype utilized some 150mm- and 100mm-wide tape for the external seams, thus adding some extra wear protection. Approximately 3kg of resin is required to fix the tape; this may be polyester or epoxy, as previously discussed in Chapter 3.

The surfaces to be joined (half the tape width each side of the seam) must be roughened to provide a ‘key’ for the resin/fibre laminate. Scraping with a short length of old hacksaw blade (the powered variety is ideal) fitted into a scrap of wood as a handle to save wear on your fingers, a toothing plane, or a suitably coarse, sharp rasp will do the job. This is necessary because of the very hard, smooth surface produced on the face veneers of plywood during manufacture. Obviously interior surfaces will require this treatment before the hull panels are fastened together. External areas are unlikely to require it because they will probably have been planed during the external cleaning-up process.

A coat of polyester resin and catalyst mixture, or a mix of resin and hardener in the case of epoxy should be mixed according to the manufacturer’s instructions and is brushed on to the roughened surfaces. Do be sure to mix the resin and catalyst exactly as advised or you may end up with a mixture that refuses to cure, or one which cures before you can work more than a few centimetres. Cut a piece of glass-fibre tape to the correct length, place it over the seam and stipple into the resin with a brush. Additional resin may be required to ensure complete wetting-out. Take particular care when handling the glass-fibre tape for if it snags on the plywood it will almost certainly pull into a narrow constriction and become useless.

All air bubbles must be stippled out; when correctly wetted-out with the resin the tape will appear transparent. Try to ensure that the tape lies flat against the plywood as neatly as possible to make a good joint. In warm weather do not work too far along a seam in one operation or the coat of resin mixture may cure before you can stipple the tape into it. Allow the first layer of laminate to become touch-dry before applying a second layer where this is required in the instructions. The final layer should be left to cure completely before being sanded smooth by hand, or with an electric sander.

As discussed in Chapter 3, it is essential that a suitable face mask is worn to prevent the breathing or ingestion of GRP dust when working on the cured laminate. Care should also be taken when handling all resin and glass-fibre materials for, as already mentioned, some people may become allergic to them. Disposable plastic gloves and barrier creams are worth wearing to prevent skin contact as far as possible.

After sanding, the laminate may be given a final thin coat of resin mixture to seal the surface and present a smooth finish suitable for varnishing or painting. It is essential to paint or varnish over epoxy resin since this is susceptible to ultraviolet deterioration.

MATERIALS

Marine-quality ply is best but is also most expensive and not always easy to obtain; good-quality exterior grade may be used successfully, but inspect it carefully.

The two sheets of plywood required for the ‘Bliss’ may be marine or good exterior quality. The thickness of the plywood may be between 4 and 6mm, the latter being both heavier and more expensive and possibly more difficult to curve at the ends of the canoe. The 4mm thickness will, however, require stiffeners on the bottom panels to prevent ‘oil-canning’ but allowance for these is included in the two sheets. Since you are going to invest several hours plus the cost of the other materials in the canoe it is not worth using inferior plywood. The rubbing strips are 15mm square stock, and inwales if fitted can be a little thinner, say 15 × 10mm. All dimensions are finished ‘planed all round’ (PAR), of any suitable knot-free, straight-grained timber. I tend to use softwood for lightness, and tape over the outer and upper sides of the strips with glass-fibre tape and resin to protect them; but use a hardwood if you prefer. Similar timber is used for seat framing and seat supports (risers), a couple of pieces of 15mm thick stock is used for the end-knees to which the rubbing strips are screwed, or thicker timber may be chosen for solid wood end-decks, which will be shaped as suggested in Chapter 5. A pair of small wooden blocks are fitted into the ends to permit holes to be drilled through for the painters and roof rack tie-downs. If framed webbing or caned seats are being fitted, slightly heavier timber is recommended since they will not be reinforced by plywood glued and pinned to them.

Polyester resin is adequate; my prototypes are built using this and seem to survive satisfactorily. Epoxy resin may be used if preferred and can also be used as the glue where required.

A nicely fitted solid timber deck on a wood-canvas canoe. Note the lifting ‘thwart’ bolted under the inwales. When the photograph was taken this canoe was unfinished.

Hull panels are stitched together with nylon monofilament fishing line, with perhaps a few copper wire stitches at points of greatest strain. Brass panel pins and annular ring-boat nails are required for framing fastenings, along with a pack of waterproof glue. Of course, as already noted, if you are using epoxy resin this can also be used for the gluing.

Once you have assembled all the materials for the ‘Bliss’, make sure that you read this chapter thoroughly before starting work. You may even like to make a card scale model to familiarize yourself with the construction sequence, especially if you are new to boat-building. No need for stitching and resin for this: masking or drafting tape will serve perfectly well and is less messy!

Materials List

Plywood

2 sheets marine/exterior grade, 2,440 × 1,220mm, thickness to choice

Timber

2 pieces 4,270 × 15 × 15mm for rubbing strips

3 pieces 4,270 × 15 ×10mm for inwales and spacers (where required for double gunwales)

1 piece 500 × 200 × 20mm for solid end-decks

2 pieces 150 × 100 × 15mm for end-knees 2 pieces 75 × 44 × 44mm for painter hole blocks

1 piece 900 × 72 × 22mm for ‘centre’ thwart

1 piece 2,745 × 25 × 15mm for seat framing

1 piece 1,220 × 25 × 15m for seat risers (seat support strips)

(Timber dimensions, other than length, may be varied slightly to suit what is economically available locally.)

Timber as required in text.

Fastenings

3kg polyester resin.

(Since epoxy is more expensive than polyester it will be sensible to purchase less than 3kg initially, depending upon the price break, and check how far it actually goes.) Catalyst or hardener (as suggested by the supplier).

Filleting additive such as microballoons for epoxy resin.

50-metre ×50mm roll of woven glass-fibre tape (tapered edge type is best if you can get it).

50-metre spool of 24kg breaking-strain nylon monofilament fishing line.

100g 18mm × 16 SWG Gripfast annular-ring boat nails.

50g 18mm brass panel pins.

16 35mm × 6 (or × 8) gauge non-ferrous, countersunk or raised-head screws for fixing rubbing strips at the ends, and seats to risers. Or similar steel screws for temporary fixing.

450g waterproof glue such as Cascamite, pack of Balcotan or epoxy resin if being used instead of polyester resin. Varnish or paint to choice.

MARKING OUT

Figure 12 shows a plywood layout based upon a simple grid on which are marked off the panel offsets from the edges of the plywood sheet. Dimensions are taken from the edges of the sheets so that any spare comes in the centre to ensure that the two middle panels are able to have the correct convex shape. Marking out should be done with a soft pencil, lightly, so that lines can be easily rubbed out to allow for a bright finish if so wished. Depending upon the type of saw you intend using for cutting out the panels, mark out on the side that will allow the best side to have the best finish. For example, if you are using an electric jig-saw, the blade cuts on the upward stroke making any tears on the top surface, so mark out on the least good side. This is really being pernickety since slightly torn edges do not matter greatly since they will either be covered with glass-fibre tape and resin – where a little roughness may help adhesion – or planed smooth along the sheer.

When the marking out of the first sheet is completed, mark out the second with the same dimensions but handed left to right. This means translating the dimensions across the sheet and you may find it easier simply to mark out on the other side of the second sheet and turn it over, left to right, which will have the same effect. It is also possible to mark out the second set of panels by using the first as templates; the only problem with this method is that any bumps and hollows produced when cutting out the panels will be replicated.

Label each panel in the same way as shown on the plywood layout drawing before cutting out; this will make it easier to lay out the panels in the correct order. The side panels will give a canoe end height of about 555mm. If you want to modify the sheerline to give lower ends, mark this out now, but I suggest you leave them full size until it is time for the rubbing strips to be fitted; this will enable you to see the effect of reducing the height before actually committing yourself. For example, having the top of the stem 65mm lower will give an end height of approximately 485mm, as shown on the elevation drawing and photographs. Do not reduce the height of the sides generally. Note that the chine panels do not join with the side and bottom panels which are adjacent to them on the same sheet of plywood.

Fig 12 The layout of the plywood hull panels for the ‘Bliss’.

CUTTING OUT AND PLANING

Begin the cutting out by removing the 305mm-wide sections that are not required for the hull panels. These sections must be retained as large as possible to enable the bottom panel stiffeners, end-decks and seats to be cut from them. Cut out the remaining hull panels. Do not plane the edges of the panels; they are a tight fit on the ply and a bump on one edge will be a hollow on another, these will sort themselves out when the panels are stitched together and the seams taped.

JOINING THE PANELS

Once all of the hull panels have been cut out the first constructional step is to join them by means of scarf joints to form the full length panels required for the hull. For this job you will need a baseboard of thick ply, chipboard, or blockboard, rather wider than the width of the widest panel and a minimum of about 600mm long. I use a section of an old kitchen worktop, but the essential points are that it will not bend when the panels are cramped to it and that it has a straight, sharp-edged end or side on which to align the ends of the panels. Also required is a pressure bar which is simply a length of timber, about 50 × 50mm and roughly as long as the width of the baseboard, with one edge planed slightly convex. This is cramped over the panels to hold them down evenly both when the joints are being planed and again when they are being glued together. If a pair of suitable G-cramps are not available a pair of bolts can be substituted, preferably with wing nuts and large washers to facilitate tightening, passed through holes bored in the ends of the pressure bar and through the baseboard. A pair of lightweight G-cramps of about 75mm capacity, or to suit your pressure bar and baseboard, will be found helpful both here and when fixing the rubbing strips, although smaller, lighter ones may be used for the latter, or possibly even a couple of home-made cramps as suggested later.

1.  Lay out the panels in the order in which they will fit together, inside on top.

2.  On each of the six bow panels, mark the line of the scarf joint. For 4mm-thick plywood, mark the line at 32mm from the end of the panel, (i.e. eight times the ply thickness). Use a marking gauge (or the home-made gauge) lightly for this line, and repeat it on the under side of the stern panels.

3.  The scarf joints can now be planed. Place one of the bottom panels on the baseboard with its end aligned with the end of the board; place on top of this the second bottom panel with its end aligned with the scarf-line of the first panel. Repeat with the third and fourth panels and cramp down all four panels. Plane all four using a smoothing plane, the aim being to obtain a feather edge on each panel; a check can be made on accuracy by keeping the glue lines neatly aligned as planing progresses. An orbital power sander can be used to finish the scarfs but take care not to remove too much wood; if the surfaces finish very smooth roughen them a little to provide a key for the glue.

4.  Repeat this planing of the scarf joints on the remaining four pairs of panels.

Fig 13 A home-made marking and pencil gauge.

Fig 14 Shows how the hull panels are aligned for planing the scarf joints, and how they should appear when planed.

GLUING THE SCARF JOINTS

The panels are now ready for gluing to obtain the six full-length hull panels. Try this as a ‘dry’ run before commencing the actual gluing. Place a strip of polythene -which can be cut from a plastic carrier bag – across the baseboard, to prevent the joint from gluing itself to the baseboard; position on this a bow bottom panel. Place over this a stern bottom panel with the scarfs together. (Alignment is easy: since the centre of the keel-line is straight, check this with a straight edge.) Place another strip of polythene over the joint and position the pressure bar over this, convex side down. Bear in mind that the actual joint is to the stern of the scarf line, which is where the pressure bar should be. Cramp the bar down with fairly light pressure. Now try pulling out the polythene from under the pressure bar. If it moves at the ends, the bar needs tightening; if it moves in the centre, the bar may need to be a little more convex, but first check that your baseboard is not bending! If all is well you are ready to glue the first joints.

1.  Proceed as for the ‘dry’ run but this time spread glue over the bow scarf before placing the stern one on top.

The pressure bar cramped over a scarf joint. Note the strips of polythene under the pressure bar and plywood.

2.  Pin through the joint with two or three steel panel pins and before driving them right home snip off their heads with pincers (protect your eyes while doing this). This is to enable the glued panels to be lifted off the baseboard when the glue has cured. (Do not forget to remove the headless pins after the panels have been lifted off.)

3.  Place the strip of polythene over the joint, then position the second stern panel over the original pair so the two completed panels will match; repeat the gluing and pin through all four panels into the baseboard, again snipping off the heads of the pins; the resulting pin holes will be filled later.

4.  Place a third strip of polythene over the joint, then the pressure bar, cramp, and check for even cramping. Wait for the glue to cure ...

This procedure is repeated for the remaining panels but since these do not have straight edges they have to be aligned with a straight edge. A taut string such as a length of the fishing line used for the stitching is quite suitable for this. Align the bow and stern ends with the line then measure off the end of the scarf joint at the correct distance from the string: 292mm in the case of the side panels with full end height, as shown in Fig 15, and 172mm for the chine panels. To facilitate measuring the correct spacing make a pair of templates of the correct lengths from ply offcuts or stiff card, or use a steel rule which has no ‘protective’ spare at one end.

While waiting for the glue to cure make up the eleven pairs of bottom stiffeners. These are necessary when using 4mm thick plywood to prevent the bottom panels from flexing when the canoe is in use; thicker plywood should not need stiffening but will be heavier overall and, of course, more expensive. The stiffeners are 50mm-wide strips of 4mm-thick ply, varying in length according to where they are to fit on the bottom panel. Begin at the scarf joint where the length of the first pair of stiffeners is the width of the panel minus the width of the glass-fibre tape you will be using. The length of each strip either side of this first one is determined in the same way with the outer ends of the strips shaped parallel to the panel edge. Chamfer the upper edges of the strips for neatness and to permit the resin to cover the ends. The strips are at 150mm centres, i.e. they have a 100mm gap between them.

Fig 15 How to align the chine and side panels when gluing the scarf joints.

When the bottom panels are ready the stiffeners can be glued and pinned into place: treat all the panels gently at this stage for they are very fragile until they are stitched together. Brass pins may be left in place with their ends snipped off, or steel pins can be used and then removed when the glue has cured and the resulting holes filled. If available, an industrial stapler could be used and the staples removed when the glue has cured. Note that the stiffeners are positioned so that the resin/tape laminate runs between their ends rather than over them. It will be convenient at this stage to fill all interior holes and clean the insides of the bottom panels using a scraper and abrasive paper.

STITCHING AND TAPING THE HULL

First make the stitch holes:

1.  Make up a simple pencil gauge, or use the home-made combination gauge, set to 10mm and mark a line around the edges of one panel of each pair where they are to be joined together, i.e. each edge except the top edges of the side panels (sheer).

2.  Starting at the bow end of each marked panel, measure off along these lines at 150mm intervals for the stitch-holes. Use a scrap of ply cut to 150mm as a template for this.

3.  Place each pair of panels together and hold them in place with cramps, or temporary pins.

4.  Drill through both panels at the marked points using a 2mm twist drill. Possibly stronger, certainly cheaper, is a suitable wire nail with its head removed and the end filed to a chisel point.

Now stitch together the two bottom panels:

1.  Begin by passing the line through the end pair of holes and knotting it.

2.  Then thread the line through the next pair of holes, under itself, and on through the next pair. This is most easily done with the panels face to face, insides together; keep the continuous line on the outside and stitch fairly tightly but not overly so. Do not try to work with a length of line sufficient to stitch the complete seam, a couple of metres is enough to handle in one go.

3.  Tie off at the end and check that the panels can be opened satisfactorily.

4.  Place supports under the edges of the sides at the middle of the panels – rubbing strips can be used for this – so the sides are 40mm off the floor at their edges in the region of the scarf joints (a reasonably level floor is needed for this stage).

5.  Weight the bottom panels down to ensure that the keel-line remains in contact with the floor. (Plastic bags of soil or even piles of magazines can be used.) The ends of the panels should be between 150mm and 160mm off the floor. If it is difficult to get the ends to remain together use an extra ‘stitch’ or a short length of copper wire to pull them together. If copper wire is used gently pull the stitch with pliers while twisting, which helps to prevent the wires breaking.

Fig 16 How the stitching is done.

Fig 17 Bottom panel alignment prior to taping the centre (keel-line) seam.

6.  Check that both sides are symmetrical. Note that the sides rise from 40mm off the floor around the scarf joints to about 150mm at the ends; the actual rate of rise should be smooth so that the lower seams (chines) will form fair curves when the chine panels are stitched to the bottom.

TAPING THE INTERIOR

The keel-line can now be taped on the inside. If using polyester resin, mix about half a cupful of resin and catalyst in accordance with the supplier’s instructions.

1.  Brush the mixed resin along the keel seam, beginning at one end and spreading it over half the width of the tape on each panel.

2.  Place a pre-cut length of tape in place over the seam and stipple it into the resin; add more resin as necessary until the tape becomes transparent. Continue along the seam to the other end.

3.  When the resin is just touch-dry, repeat with a second layer of tape. Stipple out all air bubbles and ensure that the tape lies flat against the ply. It is best to apply the second layer of tape as soon as the first layer is touch dry because this ensures better adhesion than if the first layer is allowed to cure fully.

With epoxy resin, use a filleting additive such as microballoons, or as recommended by the resin supplier, and apply the mix between the stitches along the keel seam. When this has cured the stitches can be removed and the filleting completed. This makes for a neater finish than if the stitches remain in situ. The seam can then be taped as above, but with only one layer of tape.

The DD23 ‘Bliss’ showing the bottom panels stitched together with the keel-line taped and the panel stiffeners fixed in place. The two chine panels are shown ready to be stitched into place.

When the resin has cured, the chine panels can be stitched to the bottom:

1.  Begin at the scarf joint and proceed about 600mm in each direction until the ends are reached.

2.  Cut the ends to length with a curved line to match that of the bottom panels; note the top of the chine panels must remain full length to align with the side panels. Do not cut off too much; any adjustment of the shape can be done later after the side panels are stitched into place, or even, to some extent, after the internal taping is completed.

3.  The upper chines will require fairing to a smooth line in the region of the scarf joint: plane them carefully to reduce the bump but not so much as to produce any hollow – the edges must remain convex.

Stitch the side panels on to the chines. Ensure that the panels all meet on their inner edges. If there are any gaps in the seams check by eye that the chines are fair before trying to tighten the stitches as it may not be necessary, and gaps can be covered with masking tape on the outside to prevent loss of resin from the joint. Where necessary stitches can be tightened by pushing small wooden wedges between them and the exterior hull plywood; but take care to not distort the hull.

Fig 18 A cross-section of the untaped hull showing the panels meeting at their inner edges.

Stretch a string between the ends and check for symmetry; the hull must be fair and untwisted before the interior seams are taped, check for twisting by placing a pair of battens across the gunwales, which should appear parallel when viewed from the ends. Ensure that the beam dimensions are correct as shown on the drawing. Make up and fit the two end-knees. These fix the end plan shape so they are important. However, if solid wood decks are being fitted as described in Chapter 5 the end-knees will be temporary and should not be glued in place. When all is satisfactory, tape the interior seams beginning with the lower chines and finishing with the ends; allow the tape to overlap a little. Epoxy resin is used as for the keel seam. It will probably be necessary before taping the interior to fit one or two temporary ties across the hull to fix the correct mid-length beam. A light batten with a couple of blocks nailed on at the correct spacing is all that is required.

FITTING THE RUBBING STRIPS

The rubbing strips can now be fitted to the outside of the hull at the sheer-line. This is a convenient stage at which to decide upon the required end heights. Fix the rubbing strips at the desired height and when the glue has cured saw off the ply above the strips and plane down to the top of them. If the canoe is being made with full height ends it may be necessary to pre-curve the gunwales vertically by applying hot water with cloths and weighting them to form a suitable curve for a period of a few days prior to fitting. Alternatively, the strips can be sawn through horizontally at the ends where the curve is most acute and held to the required curve while the saw cuts are either filled with a glued-in strip of contrasting veneer, or simply glued so the ends of the strips appear slightly tapered.

The DD23 ‘Bliss’ with the chine and side panels stitched into place with the interior ready for taping. Note the taut line to aid aligning; weights and spirit level inside to prevent and check twist; and wooden wedges to tighten the stitches where necessary.

Fig 19 The approximate shape of the end-blocks (knees). The actual shape will be made to fit the hull.

Fig 20 The method of sawing a slot in the gunwale (and inwale) strips to enable them to curve correctly if full height ends are chosen.

The end of a wood-canvas canoe showing how the inwales have been sawn horizontally and filled with a contrasting filler strip to assist in obtaining the upward curve of the ends. Note too the lifting ‘thwart’ bolted in place under the inwales; the shaped solid timber end-deck, and the tapered inwales, ribs and rubbing strips.

Fig 21 Three types of cramp which can be easily home-made. Dimensions can be to suit the available timber and cramping requirements.

To fit the rubbing strips:

1.  Glue and nail the strips from the inside nailing against a larger hammer or dolly. (A second pair of hands is helpful, as are a couple of cramps, which may be simple home-made ones as shown.)

2.  At the ends either screw the rubbing strips temporarily to the end-knees, or use non-ferrous screws for permanent fixings.

3.  Round off the outer edges of the strips, as paint and varnish abhors sharp edges.

Fig 22 Approximate shape of the end-blocks, which allow watertight painter holes to be drilled in the ends of the canoe. The actual shape will be such that it fits the ends of your canoe.

4.  Cut the ends to length and round off to choice, although it is probably not a good idea to have the strips extending forward in the form of a sharp point! If you intend to fit plywood end-decks do not round off the outside top edges of the rubbing strips at the ends where the decks will be fitted. Where inwales with spacers are being fitted the method of doing this will be dealt with in the next chapter.

FINISHING OFF

Shape and glue into place the two end-blocks for the painter holes. These should be positioned just above, or below, the upper chine seam; for towing, or lining the canoe down rapids, the lower the painter fixing point the better.

Turn the canoe over, cut off all the nylon stitching and round off the seams. It is wise to use either a plane with an elderly blade for which you do not have too much regard, or a Surform-type plane, for cured resin is hard on edge tools. It is sensible to wear a suitable dust mask for this stage, especially if working within the confines of a workshop or garage; eye protection is also advisable, as chips of resin tend to fly about when the seams are planed. Tape all the external seams and, if the canoe is expected to have rough use, clad the bottom with a laminate of resin and thin glass-fibre cloth. When taping the curved ends it may be found necessary to cut partway through the tape in one or two places to ensure that it lies smoothly against the plywood. Alternatively, allow the tape to stand proud and cut this away when it has cured; any small gaps can be filled with resin and smoothed when cured.

Drill the 8mm holes for the painters. It is probably best to do this half-way from each side to ensure symmetry; countersink, or round the edges of the holes with a file or abrasive paper to prevent undue wear on the painter or roof rack tie-down ropes. The basic canoe hull is now ready for fitting out and finishing to choice.

5 Fitting Out the Hull

At the end of Chapter 4 the ‘Bliss’ is completed to the stage where it is a rigid but empty shell. At this stage the hull is capable of being hung from the roof of a garage, or shelved on a pair of timber supports hung from the garage rafters if floor storage space is at a premium. All of the essential taping has now been completed and unless you wish to tape the gunwales for added wear protection, or tape fittings into the hull for fastening buoyancy or equipment bags, there will be no further need for glass-fibre tape and resin. Now comes the opportunity for the woodwork devotee to enjoy fitting out the hull to suit personal requirements. For those more inclined to spending leisure time on the water than at the work bench, I shall first describe the straightforward minimal fitting out with plywood end-decks and seats.

The plywood end-decks are made up and then glued and pinned to the top of the rubbing strips/inwales and end-knees. To facilitate their use as lifting handles the ply end-decks have three layers of 25mm-wide × 4mm-thick plywood, laminated under their inner edges and fitting between the hull sides. If the layers are glued together before fixing under the decks, their edges can be rounded to present a smooth hand grip. With the decks roughly shaped and with the hand grips fixed, pin and glue them on top of the rubbing strips and end-knees. Plane the deck edges to fair with the rubbing strips.

Fig 23 Make-up of the plywood end-decks. A suitable piece of timber could be substituted for the laminations of plywood which form the hand-hold.

FITTING THWARTS AND SEATS

The next task is the positioning and fitting of the thwarts and/or seats. Since the ‘Bliss’ is a relatively short canoe it may be better, for double paddling, especially if any rough water use is anticipated, to have the seats rather more inboard than is usual in order to keep the weight of the paddlers away from the ends. Fig 24 shows this layout. If thwarts are to be fitted, which may be preferred by kneeling paddlers, it is normal to have the forward edge of the ‘centre’ thwart about 360mm aft of the centreline; taking the inner scarf line as the centreline is near enough for our purposes. Approximately half-way between this thwart and the stem will give the position for the bow thwart, and the same distance as between the centre and bow thwarts aft of the centre thwart will give the position for the stern thwart, subject to the stern position having sufficient width for the paddler.

If the canoe is to be used primarily for long day trips or camping and appropriate equipment is needed to be carried, the two seats can be spaced about the same as for the end thwarts with the off-centre thwart retained to provide stiffening for the hull and support for a passenger backrest. This arrangement is also best if a child passenger is on board. Fig 24 shows this layout. Passengers should be seated on the bottom of the canoe to maintain maximum stability. A carrying yoke can be fitted at the actual centre point but in most instances it will be found easier to have two people carry the canoe using the end-deck hand grips, or, for short distances such as from the car to the water, to carry it on one shoulder.

A plywood canoe (DD10) being paddled solo with a light passenger (D) seated on the bottom.

Fig 24 The general arrangement drawing of the ‘Bliss’ showing two seat layouts, gunwale beam dimensions and maximum beam dimensions. Depth at centre should be approximately 330mm.

Thwarts are commonly placed immediately below inwales if these are fitted; or where they are not, the thwarts should nevertheless be fitted in the same position (approximately 15–25mm below the sheer). Seats are usually lower (between 50 and 100mm) below the sheer. It is as well to have the seats sufficiently high to permit a kneeling paddler to get his feet tucked in comfortably below the seat; this allows for a change of position during a long paddle. Kneeling also gives a more stable paddling stance, which is helpful in rough water. Plywood canoes may have their seats fitted on risers which are strips of wood fitted to the hull and glued into place so the seat frame can be glued or screwed on top of them, or bolted under the inwales where fitted. Thwarts may be bolted under the inwales, fitted in plywood blocks fastened to the sides, or mounted on top of risers, as are the seats; plywood blocks as shown on the basic general arrangement drawing are probably neatest if no inwales are fitted and may be preferred as a means of holding the thwart against the lower side of the inwales rather than bolting.

The DD23 ‘Bliss’ can easily be carried on one shoulder for short distances. The paddle shown was made using the method described in Chapter 6.

The thwart fitting on the Strickland allwood canoe.

A wood-canvas canoe showing how the thwarts can be bolted to the inwales. Where thwarts are sufficiently wide it may be better to have two bolts at each end. The builder has used different timbers to provide a colour pattern in the planking under the ribs.

Using a pencil, mark the positions of the seats and/or thwarts on the inside of the hull sides. Fitting the risers is the next job and, while the glue fastening them is curing, the seats and thwart can be made.

The seats, as shown, are 200mm wide and the risers 300mm long to allow an overlap each side of the seat; this helps spread the load on the sides of the hull. Cut out the four risers.

1.  Chock the hull level and mark the heights of the risers in their correct positions on the sides of the hull.

2.  Now hold the first riser in position against the hull and mark on its top side the curve of the hull. Then plane it to make it fit comfortably against the hull without your trying to bend, or stress the plywood. (Not very much will need to be planed off but this procedure is essential because the alternative – trying to bend the short riser to conform to the curve of the hull plywood – will create an unnecessary stress and hard spot on the hull.) At the same time, plane a little from the upper or lower edge of the riser, according to its position in the hull and whether or not you are having tumblehome or straight sides. The aim must be to have the risers conform to the shape of the hull, with their top sides flat and level to accept the seat frame. This is more obvious in the execution than in the describing, and Figs 25 and 26 should make plain what is intended and how it is achieved.

3.  Once all four risers are fitting properly, fasten them with glue and nail them from the outside using three or four annular-ring boat nails to secure them while the glue is curing.

4.  Before fixing into position, round off the lower edges and ends.

Seat Frames

The seat frames should be a close fit between the hull sides but must not impinge too firmly on the plywood or they will create hard spots. The seats may be nailed and glued in place on the risers, or they can be screwed without glue to facilitate their removal for subsequent cleaning and varnishing of the interior.

Plywood Seats

With plywood seat tops, the frames can be simple cross-pieces fitting between the hull sides, joined by supports glued and pinned under the plywood top. Softwood framing – as given in the Materials List – is adequate for such seats but may be made of larger stock if preferred. Where mortise and tenon joints are to be made for fitting the fore and aft supports then it will certainly be advisable to use thicker stock and perhaps a hardwood for the frame. This possibility is dealt with later. Fit the risers correspondingly lower in the hull to maintain the same seat height if thicker seat frame stock is being used. To make the seat supports:

Fig 25 Method of marking the shape of the hull panel on the seat risers by holding a pencil pressed against the side panel and moving it along the length of the riser.

A plywood seat shown screwed to the risers to permit removal for subsequent maintenance.

1.  Begin by marking on the risers for the longest seat the outer limits of the seat supports to suit the width of the seat.

2.  Cut the supports to fit exactly between the hull sides at these points. If you begin by making the longest seat any errors will still allow the timber to be utilized for a shorter seat.

Fig 26 Finding the vertical angle on the end of the seat support using a bevel. The horizontal angle may be found in the same way.

Fig 27 Finding the vertical angle on the end of the seat support using a piece of stiff card and trial and error. Again the horizontal angle can be found in the same way.

3.  A sliding bevel can be used to take off from the hull the correct angles for cutting the first end of each support; otherwise you will have to make up stiff card templates by trial and error, thus to ascertain the vertical and horizontal angles of the support end. Once one end has been marked out the remaining three will be simple: they may even match in pairs for each seat but do not bank on it!

4.  Cut one end of each support to the correct angle, but remember that you will not be able to try them as they are still overlength. Repeat this process for the shorter seat so you have two pairs of seat supports with one end of each fitted to the hull.

Fig 28 Method of determining the correct length of the seat supports.

5.  Take a pair of the shorter strips, position them adjacent to each other with the shaped end of each resting on the risers for the longest seat, and cramp them together in this position. The ends will probably not be a perfect fit on the hull but will be sufficiently so for the length to be taken from them to enable the longest seat supports to be cut to their correct length and angle just a fraction overlength to allow for final fitting to the hull. For the shorter seat it will be necessary to use a couple of pieces of suitable timber for obtaining the correct lengths.

6.  Finally fit the ends. This is probably best done with the aid of a really sharp chisel or, failing this, with a file, taking care to not split the ends.

1.  Cut out the plywood for the seats: this is 200mm wide and of a length to suit the position in the hull; finish the plywood short of the sides of the hull, as shown, since paddlers will not want to sit right at the edge and less plywood saves weight.

2.  Cut out the short joining pieces which will be glued and pinned under the plywood between the seat supports.

3.  Take a couple of narrow ply offcuts and pin them temporarily into place under the seat supports so that the supports are the correct distance apart to take the plywood seat top. Check that the ‘seat’ now fits in its position on the risers; if it does not, adjust the length or end-angles until it fits easily without impinging too firmly upon the hull sides.

Fig 29 Showing the construction of the plywood seat.

4.  Now make up the seat by gluing and pinning the seat top in place and then the joining supports to its underside. The framing should have all exposed edges rounded before fixing in place, except at the lower ends which will rest on the risers. With the seat top in place the temporary ply spacers can be removed.

5.  Before fixing them in place, finish the undersides of the seats with varnish or paint, but take care not to allow varnish or paint to get on the ends if the supports are to be glued to the risers.

6.  Make up the second seat in the same way. It can be fitted either by screwing it to the risers using non-ferrous stainless steel or brass screws, or by gluing it in place on the risers. In the latter case cramps can be utilized to hold the seats in place while the glue is curing, or with the canoe chocked firmly level a weight can be placed on each seat to maintain its position until the glue has cured. Where the seats are being glued permanently in place an additional safeguard against their lifting off the risers can be provided by gluing a strip of plywood to the hull sides across the top of the seat supports.

Fitting out the DD23 ‘Bliss’ canoe. The stern seat is shown completed and ready to fix (inverted on the gunwales). The forward, or solo, seat is shown in the foreground with temporary plywood spacers to give the correct width. Note the temporary tie across the gunwales to ensure the correct beam.

Fig 30 The piece of plywood glued to the hull side above the seat supports to prevent any possibility of the seat lifting off the risers.

Webbing Seats

Possibly more comfortable than plywood seats (although a piece of closed cell foam used as a cushion can work wonders!) are seats with webbing stretched and nailed inside the frame. For this type of ‘open’ seat it is suggested that a hardwood frame is used, made from larger dimensioned timber, say 22 × 32mm. The two cross-pieces will have to be mortised into the support strips and all edges well rounded for comfort. The webbing may be nylon, polyester, or elasticated and any width between about 25 and 50mm. It should be tacked in place underneath the seat framing using copper or other non-ferrous tacks, with a gap of not less than about 5mm between each strip. Position the fore and aft strips first, spacing them so that there is an odd number of strips; this will ensure a symmetrical pattern. Tack the athwartships strips to the frame at one end, then weave them through the fore and aft strips; pull tight, and tack in place on the other side of the frame. Again, they should be spaced to provide an odd number of strips.

A possible alternative to having flat cross-pieces might be to have a pair of dowels. This arrangement will not be suitable for a webbing seat but is satisfactory for seagrass which, along with real or synthetic cane, offers an alternative to webbing if an open seat is preferred. Weaving seagrass offers rather more freedom for artistic expression, or it can be as simple as weaving the webbing by having, say three or four strands in each direction across the seat plus two or three strands around the framing as spacers to produce an effect similar to that obtained with the webbing. To make a more traditional pattern proceed as follows (see Fig 32 overleaf).

A webbing seat fitted in a plywood canoe. Note the closed gunwales.

Fig 31 How the webbing seat is ‘woven’.

1.  Begin by having the end of the seagrass alongside the inner edge of the frame at a.

2.  Bring the seagrass over the side at b, under it, then up and over side a. This will bind the seagrass to the frame.

3.  Now take the seagrass under side a, over side c, then down under it, up and over side b, down and under it, then over side d, down and under it, up over and under c, then over a, down and under it, up and over side d, down and under it; then come up and over side b next to the first strand as shown in the drawing. Repeat until the narrow, fore and aft sides are filled.

4.  Knock the strands together to ensure a tight fit.

5.  Complete the seat by weaving the seagrass in a figure of eight pattern to complete the long sides.

Other patterns are also possible.

Cane Seats

Cane seats can be woven in a similar way or they can be made using ready-made sections of canework. To fit the latter it is necessary to rout a suitable groove around the seat frame into which the cane is pressed and glued using a spline or filler strip to hold it in place. A finishing strip is then glued in place on top of the spline.

1.  Begin by routing a 6mm-wide × 9mm-deep groove around the frame.

Fig 32 How to weave a traditional seagrass seat.

A cane seat fitted in a wood-canvas canoe with open gunwales.

2.  Soak the canework in warm water until it is pliable and then position it over the seat frame. Cut it to size allowing at least 25mm extra all round.

3.  Make up a tapered scrap of wood which can be used to tamp the cane into position in its groove. Cramp the two sides of the cane-work to the frame with a piece of wood over the cane to prevent its being damaged by the cramps.

4.  Run glue into the grooves on the other two sides and tamp the canework into the grooves, taking care not to break the cane. Glue the splines in the grooves over the cane, then cramp the wood strips over the sides already completed. Repeat for the other two sides.

5.  Make up four finishing strips with mitred corners and glue these in place on top of the splines. Cramp these in place using polythene strips between the seat and the cramping pieces to prevent the latter gluing to the seat.

Further details on the making of canework seats can be found in Building a Strip Canoe by Gil Gilpatrick, see Further Reading, or in other crafts books.

The Thwart

The thwart is cut to length following the same procedure as for the seat frame. The shape of the thwart is very much a matter of choice. A couple of suggested shapes are shown, but the ends where it will fit into blocks, or rest on a riser should be left square. Plywood end-blocks offer the neatest fixing where no inwales are fitted and are made up from either offcuts of 4mm-thick ply glued together to provide a thickness of 8mm, or a single thickness of 8–mm ply.

1.  Assuming that you will be using made-up blocks, cut out four rectangular pieces of 4mm-thick plywood as shown and glue them together in pairs.

2.  When the glue has cured, mark the shape of the cross-section of the thwart in the centre of both blocks and cut out the waste. This is most easily done by drilling small holes in the corners and cutting out the waste with a coping (or fret) saw.

Fig 33 Possible thwart shapes. All edges are well rounded to suit personal choice except at the ends which should be left square to fit into the thwart blocks.

Fig 34 The make-up of the thwart blocks.

Fitting a thwart with end-blocks into a plywood canoe.

3.  Drill and cut inside the line to allow for fitting; this is especially important if thwarts are being fitted at the ends of the canoe where the sides are at a greater angle than near the centre.

4.  Carefully enlarge the holes using a wood rasp, chisel, or file ensuring that the sides of the hole are correctly angled to accept the thwart when it is in its correct position in the hull. (It is likely that each side of the hole will be at a different angle.)

5.  When the blocks are a tight sliding fit on the thwart their inner edges can be rounded and the outer surface (which will be glued to the hull side) roughened to provide a key for the glue.

6.  To fix the thwart in place slide the two blocks on to it, roughened sides outward, and position the thwart in the hull. Hold it in place by driving two annular ring boat nails through the hull sides into each end of the thwart.

7.  Apply glue to the inner surface of the first block and pin it in place from the outside. (Hold a dolly against the inside as a brace against the hammering.) Repeat for the other end of the thwart and allow the glue to cure.

With spaced inwales the upper part of the block is not required if the thwart can be positioned under one of the inwale spacers, i.e. the blocks can then be U-shaped with the open top flush with the top of the thwart and both in contact with the underside of the inwale spacer. Where the thwart is positioned under one of the spaces, the upper part of the block can be slid between the inwale and the hull to bring the thwart tight under the inwale.

FINISHING

The basic canoe is now completed and ready for finishing to choice. If not already done, the top edges of the plywood sides should be planed flush with the rubbing strips and the edges of the end-decks faired into the strips. Round off the tops of the sides/rubbing strips. If softwood strips have been fitted it will add wear resistance if the top and outer edge of the strip is taped with a single layer of glass-fibre tape and resin. This prevents wear from both paddles and roof rack, although the former may be (and the latter should always be) adequately padded.

Fitting Buoyancy

Prior to painting/varnishing the interior, decide whether to fitted buoyancy. For safety, the canoe should be fitted with some form of positive buoyancy because although its being constructed mainly from wood means that it will float, it will still benefit from having additional buoyancy to enable it to keep its paddlers afloat in the event of a capsize and make easier its rescue and emptying. Buoyancy can be provided in the form of built-in sealed boxes, which are usually positioned at the ends and with some form of access hatch so the space can be used for storage of small items best kept dry. Seat boxes can be made to give the same effect but such boxes render it impossible to kneel at the seat positions and most paddlers will be reluctant to restrict their paddling in this way. When considering the ‘Bliss’, building in buoyancy will involve some additional plywood and possibly the best plan is to extend the plywood decks a little further toward the centre of the canoe and have sloping bulkheads, shaped to fit the hull and taped in place between the hull and deck. It is essential to have some means of allowing air access to the buoyancy compartment and most convenient is to have access hatches, which can be either home-constructed or the bought plastic type which are available in a variety of different fixings and sizes. The round screw type used for sailing dinghies is quite adequate, or plywood hatches can be made and fitted on a neoprene rubber gasket to ensure watertightness. For fastening the latter, simple turnbuttons or over-centre non-ferrous metal fasteners may be used.

Fig 35 Showing how the bulkhead is arranged to fit in the end of the canoe.

To make the bulkhead:

1.  Begin by making a stiff card template to fit the hull. Use this to mark out the plywood, then cut it out. Have the bulkhead a reasonably good fit where it impinges upon the taped areas of the hull but relieve the sides where they are in contact with the plywood; this will prevent the bulkhead forming hard spots on the hull, which will show on the exterior.

2.  Mark where the hatch will be fitted and cut out the hole for this. Glue and pin around the back of the hole an extra layer of plywood to take the fixings for the hatch; this doubling need not be in one piece, or even necessarily round, for it will not be seen. A square piece of plywood will be equally efficient, or indeed pieces of suitably sized timber may be used.

3.  Fix the hatch in place, then remove it until after the bulkhead is fixed in the canoe.

4.  Finish the inside surface of the bulkhead leaving clear the outer edges where it will be taped to the hull and deck; finish also the ends of the canoe that will be hidden by the bulkhead, again leaving the area to be taped. Of course the decision to fit the bulkheads must be made prior to finishing the interior of the canoe.

5.  If necessary, hold the bulkhead in its correct position with a few temporary pins through the hull and tape on the outside to the hull and underside of the deck. Tape the interior in the same way, working through the hatch hole. Alternatively, fillet both sides of the hatch with epoxy resin. Finish any areas inside the buoyancy compartment which can be seen to require this. Repeat at the other end of the canoe.

It is essential that similar buoyancy is fitted at both ends of the canoe, otherwise in the event of a capsize the canoe will float with one end higher than the other. Complete the interior finishing of the canoe and finally fix the hatches in place.

Where the bulkhead has been taped to the inner edge of the deck, additional hand-holds will be required to facilitate lifting the canoe at the ends. These holds can be in the form of short, narrow, lifting thwarts fitted about 100mm in from the inner ends of the decks; where inwales are to be fitted the holds can be bolted through the inwales with a single bolt at each end. Where there are no inwales, the holds can be made from lengths of dowel (25mm diameter or slightly smaller) plugged into ply blocks which are pinned and glued to the side of the canoe as already described for the thwart fixings. When boring the blocks to take the dowel remember that the dowel will be at an angle to the blocks; either bore at the correct angle, or bore smaller holes than are required and file them to fit. Where solid timber decks are being fitted it may be considered desirable to fit similar carrying holds rather than utilize the decks for this purpose.

Other buoyancy options are solid polystyrene foam, inflated bags, or watertight plastic drums, which can again be used for storage. The inflated bags will have to be bought; they are available in a range of sizes shaped to fit either in the centre of the canoe or in its ends. The drums are also available in various capacities, currently from 6.4 to 68.6 litre, the smaller obviously being of more use for the dry storage of personal gear than for buoyancy. The solid polystyrene foam is messy stuff once it begins to break up and is not really advisable for this reason, but it can often be found in quite large pieces for the asking. However, if it is to be used for buoyancy then it should be securely wrapped and adhesive-taped into strong plastic bags to avoid any possibility of its being broken and scattered around the countryside. Polystyrene foam, inflated bags and drums will all require fixing points for straps, cords, or preferably nets, which will retain the buoyancy in place should the canoe capsize. Double open gunwales provide suitable fixing points but without such inwales blocks will have to be made up and fixed into the hull at suitable points along the sides. The blocks can be glued and pinned to the hull then taped over for extra security.

A solid timber deck in a plywood canoe with the inwales neatly butted to the deck. Note the lifting ‘thwart’ with the bolt heads counterbored and filled with matching dowels. Another option is shown here for dealing with the ends of the rubbing strips.

An inflated buoyancy bag fitted into the end of a single chine plywood canoe. In this case the bag is held in place with lacing threaded through small holes drilled through the sides of the canoe below the rubbing strips.

Fig 36 Wooden block to be glued and taped into the hull for attaching ropes, nets, and so on, for holding in place buoyancy bags or blocks.

End-decks and Inwales

If you opt to have inwales, do fit them on to spacers to form open gunwales, for these will then provide not only drainage slots and fixing points for buoyancy and gear, but also enable the seats and thwarts to be fastened in place using 5mm-diameter brass bolts (or similar size, subject to availability). The bolts’ lengths will depend upon what they are being used for and their position in the canoe. For example, the seats may require bolts of 90–30mm, while the thwarts will require only some 50mm, depending upon the thickness of inwale and thwart. To stiffen the bolts and improve appearance they should be threaded through a suitable length of dowel bored to take them. Sets of bolts already fitted with dowels can be bought from specialist suppliers. The 150mm-long gunwale spacers are cut from one of the 15 ×10mm strips; position these on the inside of the gunwales beginning at the ‘centre’ thwart so the ends of the thwart are centred on the first spacer. Arrange the other spacers at equal intervals to permit the ends of the other thwarts or seats to be similarly centred. For neatness of appearance the ends of the spacers may be hollowed or rounded either in plan or elevation. Glue and pin the spacers through the hull to the rubbing strips at sheer level.

When the glue has cured the inwales can be fitted. Exactly how this is to be done depends upon whether the end-decks are of solid wood, or plywood as already described. In the latter case the inwales can simply butt against the end-knees and the joints will be hidden under the plywood decks. Glue and pin the inwale to a short length of spacer strip butted against the knee under the deck (see Fig 38).

Fig 37 Method of attaching seats by bolting to inwales. In this case the inwales are shown nailed and glued to spacers to give open gunwales.

Where solid wooden decks are being fitted these can be made in different ways according to personal choice. Most simple is to have one-piece decks with their upper surfaces curved to permit the sides to meet the inwales with equal thickness, and with the inner edge rounded as shown. A grooved hand-grip may be carved on the underside, or a separate hand-hold for carrying the canoe can be fitted as already described.

An option is to make each deck from two pieces. This makes it easier to give the inner edge a more complex curve; a heart-shaped one is traditional. The centre join can also be made decorative by adding a veneer, or strip of contrasting wood, between the two sides of each deck section. The inwales can be cut into the decks as shown in Fig 41. Pin and glue the end-decks in place before fixing the rubbing strips (see the end of Chapter 4).

Fig 38 Showing how spaced inwales can be fitted under plywood decks.

Fig 39 A solid wooden deck showing one treatment of the upper surface, where it is curved to bring the deck to the same thickness as the inwales at its edges. The inner edge can be shaped and rounded to personal choice.

When fitting the inwales fit one end first, leaving the inwale strips overlength. Cramp the inwale to the spacers and mark the other end to fit the deck. Cut to length using a fine toothed back saw, allowing a fraction for final fitting with a chisel. Glue and nail, or glue and screw the inwales to the spacers.

A further option when fitting the inwales is to have the spacers shaped thinner toward the ends so the inwales are in contact with the hull at the inner edge of the decks where plywood decks are fitted, or cut in to finish flush with the hull with solid wood decks. In this case either cramp the spacers to be planed, or fasten them with temporary steel pins and remove the pins to permit the spacers to be planed to the correct thickness. This can be determined by holding an inwale strip in place on top of the gunwale and marking the angles at which the spacers are to be planed on top of each. The inwales too can be tapered as they approach the ends. This procedure makes the ends of the canoe appear less heavy.

Fig 40 Two-piece decks showing how they are cut and two methods of making them up.

The method of fitting the end-decks and inwales can be as simple or as complicated as the builder wishes to make it, and while inwales add a little weight they do also stiffen the canoe and are very convenient for lashing items inside the hull.

Sanding

The finish of the bare wood will govern the final finish, so sanding is very important. Wear a suitable face mask when sanding the hull to avoid breathing, or ingesting, GRP dust, and try to fair the edges of the glass-fibre tape smoothly to the surface of the plywood. There are new abrasive products arriving on the market regularly these days, but while they may possibly be longer lasting than more traditional abrasive papers, or cloth, they are likely be more expensive. For the untreated wood surfaces it is probably best to use an aluminium oxide paper, which is a good compromise between economy and utility. Whatever your choice do use a cork block for hand sanding; this will ensure the removal of high spots on the taped areas. If you are tempted to use an orbital power sander (not a disc sander), do take care to avoid abrading away the relatively soft plywood adjacent to the hard glass-fibre/resin laminate. Begin with a grade 240–320 on the bare wood. The actual taped areas may require something a little coarser than this initially, but take care to avoid damaging the plywood. Fold and tear the paper into convenient sized pieces to fit the cork block. For rubbing down varnish or paint in between coats, use a 320 or 400 grade silicon carbide wet-and-dry abrasive used wet.

Fig 41 One way in which the inwales may be cut into the wooden deck.

Fig 42 Tapered spacers and a two-piece deck with decorative infill and inwales cut into it. Inwales could also be tapered to match the spacers.

PAINT AND VARNISH

The paint programme will be set if you are using the products of one maker: follow the instructions given on the cans and the finish should be as good and as long-lasting as can be expected. I have had good results from the so-called ranch paint, which is supposed to allow the wood to ‘breathe’: while water cannot get in, water vapour can escape. This may or may not happen and the paint seems to remain soft for quite some time, but once properly hardened it appears perfectly adequate for a canoe and has a pleasant semi-matt finish which shows up surface imperfections less than a full gloss paint.

With varnish, as discussed, I tend to expect the more expensive varieties to perform better but don’t necessarily use them myself! A canoe like the ‘Bliss’ really uses such a small quantity of paint and varnish (which represents such a minor part of the overall cost) that it is probably advisable to buy the best quality you can afford. My preference is for traditional oil-based varnishes, but this is based on a prejudice towards the old-fashioned and an unfortunate experience with an early two-part varnish which bloomed and had to be removed. This can happen I believe if the timber is not completely dry; at the time I thought mine was, but perhaps not. Since it is difficult to gauge the degree of dryness I have since stayed faithful to the traditional type of varnish. The varnish programme should be followed as suggested on the can: always read what the manufacturer suggests; they do, after all, want their customers to get the best results for it may encourage them to buy more of their products! My own modification for the first coat is to mix one part varnish, one part white spirit, and one part clear wood preservative. This may do no good whatsoever but it is a nod in the direction of rot prevention. Thereafter I follow the instructions as to the number of thinned coats before applying the final neat one. If you are using varnish from a previously opened can it is good policy to use this for earlier coats which may be thinned, and if necessary to strain it through muslin to remove any oddments of skin which may find their way on to the canoe.

The end of a wood-canvas canoe showing how the inwales and nibbing strips have been tapered to present a lighter appearance. Note, too, how the solid timber deck has been fitted inside the inwales so the ends can drain when the canoe is inverted.

There will probably not be very much choice as to where the painting and varnishing is done; ideally it should be in a dust-free space but this may be impossible to achieve. Outdoors on an overcast, warm, windless day is also suitable. In fact, dust is likely to be less of a problem than might be supposed because the surface finish of the timber and plywood will play a far more important role in the final finish than will dust. Insect suicide is inevitable on warm summer days; ignore the corpses until the paint or varnish is dry and then wipe them off. They present no real problem because tiny bumps resulting from their removal can be rubbed down except on the last coat, which may be better done in the garage or workshop where flying creatures should be less troublesome.

The completed DD23 ‘Bliss’ canoe shown inverted.

The amount of rubbing down that is necessary between coats of varnish or paint rather depends on the finish each coat provides. Follow the makers’ advice where this is given, and do ensure that the previous coat is hard dry before attempting to use an abrasive on it. Certainly the final coat must be applied only to a surface that is as near perfect as you can get it if the appearance of the completed canoe is to be really good. Wet-and-dry abrasive paper used wet usually gives a better finish than dry paper, and clogs less easily with dust. Have a bucket of soapy water to hand while working with wet and dry; frequent wetting will help to keep the paper from clogging. Whichever abrasive is used, after rubbing down, the surface will require wiping with a clean, lint-free cloth moistened with white spirit, or a tack cloth, the latter especially if dry paper is being used. The tack cloth can be bought or it can be made by dipping a cloth in a mix of varnish thinned with white spirit and wringing out as dry as possible. (wearing plastic gloves is advisable for this process.) This is a useful way of using up old, end-of-can varnish.

When the finishing is completed the canoe is ready for use but there are a number of essential, or helpful, accessories to be bought or made; Chapter 6 describes some of these and how to choose or make them.

6 Accessories and Equipment

PADDLES

Before getting afloat in your newly completed ‘Bliss’, the first essential piece of equipment is a paddle. Paddles are available in a wide variety of shapes, sizes and materials. Racing paddles made from a carbon fibre and resin laminate and weighing but a few grammes command high prices, representing, as so often in sports equipment, the necessity of paying more for less, in this case less weight. At the other end of the price scale are plastic blades and handgrips set on an aluminium shaft, which, while completely serviceable, always feel out of place for use with a wooden canoe. In between these price extremes is a comprehensive range of wooden paddles from the traditional, hardwood, one-piece beavertail, or ottertail design, usually imported from North America, to beautifully made laminated paddles.

Also available are paddles whose blades are set at an angle to the shaft, so-called bent-shaft paddles; the angle varies from about 7–15 degrees. These are primarily for doubles touring or ‘sit and switch’ paddling where the paddler uses the paddle on one side of the canoe for a few strokes before switching to the other side; a method used for marathon racing. Bent-shaft paddles have the disadvantage of being less good for traditional strokes while being efficient for straight line doubles or sit and switch paddling.

Choosing Type and Size

You may eventually require more than one paddle: the beaver, or ottertail, is ideal for deep water paddling on canals or lakes where advantage can be taken of the efficiency of the long, relatively narrow blade which enables the paddler to use the blade nearer the side of the canoe. The reason for the development of such traditional shapes probably springs in part from their being made originally from one piece of wood; carving a long narrow blade is likely to be easier, and the resulting blade stronger, than a shorter, wide blade. So if you are going to start your canoeing career on canals, lakes or similar deep waters then go for the traditional long narrow blade.

Fig 43 A 15° bent paddle.

Three wooden paddles showing different styles. Left, a laminated ottertail design; centre, a laminated Northwoods pattern with a beavertail blade; and right, a traditional beavertail shape of three-part construction.

The less traditional modern paddles tend to have shorter, wider blades which are more suitable for general purpose use in both shallow and deep water. Because they have wider blades they are better if made from a number of laminations, which helps to prevent the blades from warping. It is a very good idea to try paddling your own canoe with a variety of paddles of different shapes and lengths before settling upon the type to make or buy. This will be made easier if you join one of the canoeing associations, for they often have meets at which commercial organizations will be present with a range of canoes and accessories available for the members to try – an ideal way to find out what suits you.

Fig 44 A laminated paddle.

The actual size of the paddle is down to personal choice. Most come in a range of lengths and experience will tell you which to choose. Without experience how do you choose? This depends upon which book you read, or whose advice you seek. It has been suggested that you should choose a paddle length equal to your own standing height but if you think about this, it is difficult to justify. The relationship between the paddler’s leg length, which is where most height differences occur, and the length of the paddle (which is, after all, used while sitting or kneeling in a canoe) may be thought somewhat superfluous.

One method of determining the length of paddle to suit the individual, at least initially, is to take a length of wood about l,500–l,800mm long, the piece ear-marked for your future paddle shaft will do. Place one hand over the end in the position it will be when paddling, then place the shaft on your head with both elbows forming right angles. The distance from where your second hand reaches to the top of the blade should equal the freeboard of your canoe, say 150–200mm; this length of the shaft is often padded to prevent wear when used for pry strokes (explained in Chapter 7). Add the length of the blade, about 600mm; the width of the blade can vary from about 150–190mm. Having explained all this it must be said that most experienced pad-dlers will use paddles of different lengths to suit the conditions: for example, a longer shaft and wider blade may be chosen for greater control in rough water conditions. However, the beginner has to start somewhere and a paddle sized as suggested above will give a reasonable length.

Making a Paddle

To make such a paddle, obtain either a length of spruce or some similar straight-grained, knot-free, softwood or a hardwood such as ash or maple, 1,800 × 34 × 34mm for the shaft, to be cut to length, and one piece 1,200 × 70 × 10mm: this will provide the two halves of the blade.

Fig 45 One method of determining the correct length for a single-bladed paddle.

Fig 46 The component parts of the single-bladed paddle and how they fit together.

1.  Begin making the paddle by cutting the blade timber as shown in Fig 46.

2.  Mark the length of the blade on two opposite sides of the shaft and where the hand-grip pieces will be glued at the top of the shaft. Cut off the shaft above this if applicable. The shaft between these marks will be rounded and thinned to suit the paddler.

3.  Mark an octagon on the ends of the shaft; first draw in the diagonals, then set a pair of compasses to half the length of the diagonal and, with the point on the corner, strike arcs on each side. Repeat for the other three corners and join the ends of the arcs to form the octagon as in the drawing.

4.  Use a pencil gauge, or a home-made pencil/nail gauge as shown, to mark the two lines on each side of the shaft between the bottom of the hand-grip and top of the blade. (It is better not to use a mortise gauge for this marking for the resulting engraved lines may prove difficult to remove without making the shaft thinner than required.) As an alternative to the method of marking the shaft to produce an octagon (as outlined in Step 3), make up a spar gauge (as shown) with its guide:pencils:guide spacing in the ratio of 7:10:7. As shown, the gauge can be used for any paddle shafts or spars up to a width or thickness of 72mm, including spars which are first tapered while in their square section, for providing the gauge is held with its two guides firmly in contact with the sides of the spar timber the two pencils will mark the lines correctly.

Fig 47 Showing how to mark out the paddle shaft to produce an octagonal section on the way to making the shaft round-section.

Fig 48 A spar or paddle-shaft gauge for marking the lines on the sides of the timber to produce the initial octagonal section.

Fig 49 Two possible shapes for paddle hand-grips.

5.  Plane the shaft to the lines until it is neatly eight-sided except where the blade and hand-grip will be fitted.

6.  The blade pieces and grips can now be glued into place on the shaft. Ensure that the pieces are correctly centred on the shaft and hold them in place with cramps, or sections of car inner tube cut to give rubber bands about 30–40mm wide. Leave until the glue has cured.

7.  Shape the paddle according to your personal choice; retain the full thickness of the shaft at right angles to the blade at least in the area below the lower hand position to provide maximum strength; above this the shaft can be rounded and thinned to suit you. Plane the blade area to a thickness of about 9mm in the centre and 4mm at the edges for softwood, a little thinner if using hardwood. Leave the bottom edge a little thicker and shape to personal choice; it may be rounded or left almost square with just the corners rounded. To ensure symmetrical planing of the blade, mark a centre line around the edges. The handgrip should be a comfortable fit in your hand: it can be single-sided, or double-sided so the paddle can be used either way round, which is useful for the Indian stroke. The hand-grip can be left unfinished until you have tried paddling with the paddle to allow for alterations to its shape. Shaping the paddle can be done with a variety of hand tools but a spokeshave, once mastered, will be found a pleasing tool to use; an orbital power sander is helpful in finishing the paddle but do wear a face mask when creating a lot of dust.

A pair of paddles made using the method described. The right-hand one has its bottom taped with glass-fibre/resin laminate.

Examples of hand-grips. The centre one has had small pieces of plywood glued to the ‘ears’ to bring them up to the thickness of the loom prior to shaping, which adds a decorative effect. The grip on the right is still in the process of being shaped to suit.

8.  Tape across the bottom of the blade: this will help prevent the worst effects of wear and the tape can be replaced in the future should it become necessary. Ideally, use a strip of bias-cut glass-fibre cloth, or similar reinforcing material; the bias cut will allow it to conform to the curved shape of the blade when pulled against the timber. If you do intend taping the bottom of the paddle you may care to make the bottom edge of it a little thinner so the tape does not add unduly to the finished thickness.

9.  Varnish the paddle as for the canoe and if you want to pad the shaft below the lower hand position this can be done in the traditional way by having a strip of leather wound around the shaft, and preferably finished with the ends glued to the shaft rather than pinned. A more modern method might be to use cycle handlebar tape. This is available in a wide range of finishes such as towelling, cork, or just padded plastics, and being self-adhesive, it is easy to apply.

Using a rotary sander to remove waste from a double paddle blade before finishing by hand or with a less drastic sander. Note the use of a face mask and goggles.

For two paddlers wielding single-bladed paddles, moving the canoe along will present no problems once the basics have been mastered, but paddling solo with a single blade is a little less easy, especially so with an unladen canoe in windy conditions. You will learn with experience how to cope with such conditions, but until you do it will be found easier to paddle with a double paddle in such circumstances. This may be seen as anathema by many canoeists but if you are touring and want to make progress but lack the experience, it may be better temporarily to utilize a double paddle and ignore conformity.

Double paddles come in as wide a variety of guises as does the single blade, but from our viewpoint we need consider just two methods of construction. First there is the question of size, and here it is necessary to take into account the beam of the canoe. Since the ‘Bliss’ is wider than the average kayak, a rather longer paddle will be required, say 2,500mm; the blades will be shorter than for the single blade but may be a little wider, 465 × 190mm. There is also the question of ‘control’. Look at a group of kayakers and you will probably see them using paddles that have the blades set at an angle to each other, often 90 degrees, but sometimes at a smaller angle. A moment’s thought will show that there are two ways in which the blades can be positioned relative to each other. If the paddle is stood on one end on the ground with the lower blade facing you and the upper blade facing to the left, then the paddle has left-hand control. If the upper blade was facing to the right, the paddle would have right-hand control. The reason for this ‘feathering’ is to allow the upper blade to pass through the air edge first, thus reducing wind resistance. Against this reduction must be counted the effect of a side wind on the upper blade which will have a capsizing moment, but this is likely to be of more importance to the sea kayaker than the canoeist. Since the double paddle is probably going to be used only occasionally, you may prefer to eliminate learning the twisting technique involved in using feathered blades and make a paddle with the blades parallel to each other, or with flat blades where either control may be used. The choice is yours and it makes no difference to the basics of making the paddle.

Fig 50 Determining the ‘control’ of a double-bladed paddle.

1.  Begin by determining the control you require, if any. Mark on the sides of the shaft where the blades will be glued and the points on the shaft to where the blades will reach.

Fig 51 Marking the shaft for the blades.

Fig 52 The unshaped blades glued to the octagonal paddle shaft.

2.  Using a gauge as already described, mark two lines on each side of the shaft between which the blades will fit, as for the single-bladed paddle. Plane to these lines to give an octagonal shaft, then glue the blade sections to the shaft, again in the same way as was done with the single-bladed paddle.

3.  Plane the blades to give a symmetrical shape, i.e. flat both sides, or plane the backs to a convex curve and the front face slightly hollowed. Given patience and suitable tools, the front faces could be hollowed to a spoon shape, which makes the blade marginally more efficient, but this is a real labour of love and by no means essential. Plane the blades to feather them into the shaft which should be rounded and thinned to suit.

Fig 53 Shaft and blade shape to suit a plywood paddle blade.

4.  Finish with varnish.

A rather more simple method would be to use plywood blades glued and pinned to the shaped shaft as shown in the drawing. Whichever method is chosen, the result will be in a perfectly serviceable paddle for occasional use in a canoe.

POLES

Other than paddling the method of hand-propelling a canoe is by poling. Canoe poles can be bought or made and, rather like paddles, they come in a variety of materials such as fibre-reinforced plastics, aluminium and timber. Slightly different, but appropriate for a wooden canoe, is the use of bamboo. Using bamboo may require a little more work than timber, or even aluminium, but should provide an inexpensive, light, strong and springy pole that will be a pleasure to use. Why pole a canoe at all? Mainly for getting upstream in the solo mode. The conditions suited to poling are a river that is not too deep with a reasonably solid, gravel or sandy bottom; mud makes poling difficult even if the pole is fitted with a suitable shoe. If the river deepens the pole can be used temporarily as a paddle, in single- or dou-ble-bladed mode. The pole can also be utilized for downstream canoeing: in shallow rapid rivers, for instance, the pole can be used to snub and slow the canoe to provide control. Certainly poling is not common in Britain but it does provide another useful skill for the canoeist to learn and in the right circumstances is very worthwhile.

Making a Pole

The pole should be about 3,700mm long with a diameter of around 35mm, although, as with most of the dimensions given for materials in this book (other than the plywood), these are by no means critical. The pole needs to be sufficiently long, and thick enough to handle comfortably while thin enough still to retain some spring. Commercially available poles are usually jointed to allow the pole to be taken apart for convenient carrying in the canoe when not in use, but this is not absolutely essential since even a pole of 37,00mm long can be carried in ‘Bliss’, albeit with one end protruding from the canoe.

1.  Begin preparing the bamboo pole by scraping and glass-papering it, and if necessary filing the nodes a little to make it pleasant to handle.

Fig 54 Common whipping at the top of a bamboo pole.

2.  Apply about 30mm of whipping to each section of the pole midway between the nodes to prevent splitting. Use a polyester whipping twine with a minimum diameter of about 1mm, or No 8, preferably unwaxed (although this is not important; it just seems likely that varnish will adhere better to unwaxed twine). An alternative to using whipping twine is to tape around the bamboo with a double layer of 50mm glass-fibre tape and resin. Sand this smooth before varnishing.

3.  The ends of the pole must now be plugged with softwood plugs shaped to fit tightly; whip the upper end before fitting the plug in place. The lower end can be bound with copper wire, or have a short length of non-ferrous tubing fitted over the end before the plug is fitted. The plug in this case can be a good push fit; it will in any case swell when it is wetted in use. The metal tubing will help to prevent wear. Alternative shoes can be fitted; for example, an ordinary metal or plastic boat-hook fitting might be used if available in a sufficiently large size to fit the pole, or a suitable bolt could be screwed part way into the end plug; other similar ideas as a means of preventing undue wear to the bottom of the pole will probably occur to you.

4.  The completed pole can be varnished or painted – painting different coloured lines around the pole at set intervals will make it useful for checking water depths. This will also make it easier to see the pole if it is inadvertently dropped into the water. The whipping twine is available in a variety of colours so could possibly be used to mark off specific intervals.

To give the pole a joint is just a little more complicated:

1.  Decide where you want the join to be: it may be advantageous to have the lower section longer than the upper, but the joint will obviously have to be between two of the nodes.

Fig 55 Two pole-bottom protection options.

2.  Whip each side of where the cut is to be made and cut the pole using a fine-toothed saw.

3.  Obtain a square end by putting adhesive tape around the pole and cutting to the tape. Tidy the cut ends using a plane, or spokeshave, and abrasive paper.

4.  Glue a hardwood plug into the lower end, then clean out the upper end to enable the plug to fit tightly while still allowing the pole to be taken apart. The hardwood plug should be as long as is reasonably possible to fit between the nodes and thus provide maximum strength at the joint.

You may prefer to use timber for a pole, in which case a length of clear spruce or Columbian pine of 3,700 × 38 × 38mm will serve very well. Prepare it by marking each side with a pair of lines as already described for the paddles so as to give eight equal sides when planed to the lines. Plane the pole to produce an octagonal section; the lower one or one and half metres may be left octagonal; above this round the pole and taper a little toward the top. It should be possible to flex the pole slightly: check this before planing too much off.

SAILING GEAR

Paddles and poles enable you to propel the canoe but, if the wind is blowing, why not make use of its power? Open canoe sailing is growing in popularity and while an ordinary canoe cannot sail as efficiently as a purpose-designed sailing canoe, or dinghy, it can be great fun and a useful way of saving your energy given the right conditions. Sailing gear can be bought but is not difficult to make at home.

The Spars

If you have already decided upon a bamboo pole it will make sense to have the spars for the sailing gear of the same material.

1.  Prepare the bamboo spars and fit softwood plugs in the same way as described for the pole.

2.  Drill 5mm holes in the ends of the boom and yard as shown in Fig 58, and/or fit brass screw eyes in the end-plugs and an 8mm hole at the top of the mast to take the halyard.

3.  Countersink each of the holes on both sides to prevent wear to the ropes.

The Sail

The sail is intended to have an area of 4 sq. metres; this is an adequate size for casual sailing and will permit competing in Open Canoe Sailing Group races if so desired. Making the sail can be as complicated as you wish to make it. Most simple is to buy a reinforced-plastic tarpaulin a little larger than the sail required; the one used for the sail in Fig 56 is 3.00 × 2.44m. Cut out the shape of the sail as shown and either hem the cut edges, or seal them with adhesive tape. An inexpensive kit will allow the fitting of small eyelets along the top (head) of the sail at about 200mm intervals so it can be laced to the yard, and in the corners for tying to the ends of the yard and boom. A more professional looking sail will be achieved by making the sail from terylene sailcloth and possibly working into it some shape to give it an airfoil section. However, this is rather beyond the scope and intention of this book. Readers wishing to try real sail-making should consult one of the books on the subject (see Further Reading). The sail is shown on the sail plan with a 90 degrees tack corner for the convenience of making from a tarpaulin. Starting from scratch with lengths of cloth this angle could be increased to bring the throat further forward so the halyard is attached to the yard at about one third of its length. This will make the sail a little easier to raise and lower, i.e. the yard will be more controllable while being hoisted and lowered.

Fig 56 Sail plan suitable for cutting from a 3.00 × 2.44m reinforced-plastic tarpaulin. The parts of the sail are also named as in the text and glossary. The sail is laced to the yard but is loose footed on the boom. Where possible the foot of the sail should be made slightly convex; approximately 75–100mm below the horizontal will be satisfactory.

Setting the sail on the spars for the first time should be done with the whole rig laid out flat:

1.  Lace the head of the sail to the yard using thin line with its corners – the throat and peak – tied to the ends of the yard; the bottom corners, the tack and clew, are tied to the ends of the boom.

2.  Position the mast on top of the boom and yard with about 150mm of the boom forward of the mast, and the sail front edge (luff) sloping forward at the top; the yard should be at about the same level as the halyard hole at the top of the mast.

Fig 57 Tying the clove-hitch and the rolling hitch.

3.  Tie the halyard to the yard where the mast crosses it, using either a clove-hitch or rolling hitch; thread the halyard up through the hole at the top of the mast.

4.  Thread the tack downhaul through the second hole at the front end of the boom, and the sheet through a hole at the other end, or tie it to the end of the boom; the rig is now ready for use.

Fig 58 The method of reeving the halyard to give greater control over the yard, and how the tack downhaul is fitted. Two holes are shown at right angles to each other for downhaul and sail attachment. Two holes are required at the outer end of the boom for the sheet and sail attachment.

A refinement that renders the sail easier to raise and lower, especially when windy, is to have the halyard attached to the front end of the yard, then passed around the opposite side of the mast to the yard where it is then passed through an eyelet, or a small block attached to the yard, and then through the hole at the top of the mast as already described. The halyard thus holds the yard in contact with the mast and prevents it being blown about.

To mount the rig in the canoe it will be necessary to have a hole in one of the plywood seats suitable for the mast to pass through, or a fitting attached to the seat, plus a step under the hole to take the end of the mast. Providing the decision is made to provide the hole when the seats are being made this can be arranged quite simply:

1.  Mark the position of the hole in the stern seat; ‘Bliss’, being symmetrical, will have no objection to being sailed backwards and using the stern seat will leave more space in the canoe for the crew who will be sitting, or lounging on the bottom. The size of the hole in the seat should be sufficient to take the maximum diameter of the lower section of the mast plus about 10mm all around.

2.  Glue under the seat ply two pieces of ply to provide a double thickness where the first hole has been cut; cut out a second hole in this double thickness which just allows the lower section of the mast to pass through. Use a coping, or fret saw for cutting the holes; this will obviously be easier if done prior to making up the seat.

3.  Now make a plywood filler to fit the larger first hole and use the double thickness ‘cut-out’ glued underneath the centre of this to form a complete plug to fill the hole while the seat is in use for paddling. A pair of plywood turnbuttons fitted under the seat will retain the filler in place while not sailing.

Fig 59 The arrangement of the plywood seat to take the mast.

Fig 60 The mast step, glued and taped to the inside of the canoe bottom below the seat hole to give a vertical mast.

Where non-plywood seats are to be fitted, the mast hole can be formed in a timber extension on the rear side of the stern seat, where it should not interfere with the comfort of the paddler, or a metal strap may be fitted in the same position. The mast step can be a small plywood and timber box, or a short length of thick dowel set in a square of 22mm thick wood. Both should be shaped to fit the bottom panel and glued in place. Arrange the step so the mast is vertical when the canoe is chocked level. The tack downhaul and halyard can be made fast to cleats attached to the mast just above the seat (plug the mast to take the screws, or use self-tapping screws) or to the seat supports at the sides of the seat. In the latter case the ropes will also serve to retain the rig in the canoe in the event of a capsize (not to be discounted when sailing a canoe!). This simple rig will enable you to be blown downwind, steering with a paddle. It will not permit sailing across, or into, the wind; for that some means of preventing leeway will have to be provided.

LEEBOARDS

The purpose-designed sailing canoe will have a centre- or daggerboard fitted in a watertight case to prevent leeway but such complications and weight are not for the paddling canoeist, and anyway such a fitting would debar competition in the Open Canoe Sailing Group whose competition rules permit only leeboards. The leeboard, as its name suggests, is a board hung on the lee side of the craft to prevent leeway, i.e. to prevent the canoe being blown sideways. Commonly, two such boards are fitted with the board on the weather side (from which the wind is blowing) raised. Thus when the boat tacks from having the wind on, say, the left, to having it on the right, the right board is raised and the left one lowered; the pressure of the water holds the lowered board against the side of the boat. For the occasional canoe sailor it is sufficient to have only one board provided it is sufficiently strong both in itself and its fixings to allow it to function when lowered on the ‘wrong’, weather side.

A single leeboard fitted through ‘slots’ on the side of the canoe.

Fig 61 Front, side and plan views of the leeboard fittings. For detailed views of the ends of the fixing beam, see page 98. Where the fixing beam bears against the canoe it should be padded with glued-on pieces of neoprene rubber. The length of the fixing beam will depend upon the actual width of the rubbing strips used.

One of a pair of leeboards similar to those described. The inside surfaces of the boards are airfoil section and, as there are two boards, the fittings do not have to be so substantial.

Leeboard fittings may be quite complex but a starter kit can be simple enough. First requirement is for the leeboard itself; for maximum efficiency this should be shaped as shown with both sides of the underwater length planed to form a reasonable airfoil section; if two boards were being used, a section with a flat surface on the outside of the board would be more efficient, rather like a low speed aircraft wing with its greater curve to the top surface to provide lift. The board is bolted to the gunwale cramp with a substantial ‘washer’ on the outer side to support the board when it is being used on the weather side of the canoe; the athwartships beam spreads the load to both gunwales and avoids the possibility of distorting or damaging the gunwale where the leeboard is working. The board can be arranged to fit on either side to suit you, but to change sides it will have to be unbolted from the beam because it can only be used one way round, i.e. it has leading and trailing edges. Where the board is positioned along the gunwale is related to the position of the mast or, more accurately, to the centre of effort of the sail. The leeboard should be placed a little behind of the centre of effort because the latter has a tendency to move backward with an increase in wind speed. Fig 62 explains this positioning. The aim is to encourage the canoe to head gently into the wind if the steering paddle is removed from the water. This is a safety feature: if you stop steering, the canoe will head up into the wind and come to a stop.

Fig 62 The relationship between the centre of effort of the sail and position of the leeboard on the hull. Also shown are detailed views of the ends of the leeboard fixing beam.

It is also possible to fit a rudder and steering gear to a canoe but this is an unnecessary complication for what is intended to be a paddling canoe so until you become hooked on sailing I suggest learning to steer with a paddle on the weather side. This also has the advantage that you can assist the canoe to turn with a judicious stroke should it show any reluctance.

Since sailing a canoe offers a greater chance of a capsize than when paddling, at least in flat water, it is even more necessary to fit some form of positive buoyancy and if sailing is likely to form a large part of your canoeing activity it will be worth considering the fitting of built-in buoyancy as described in Chapter 5.

You now have your canoe completed and ready to use but before rushing off to the nearest water do at least read the following chapter which will give you some idea of how to paddle the canoe. Ideally, if you are a complete novice to canoeing, it will be sensible to obtain some on-the-water instruction, either via one of the associations mentioned, a local canoeing club, or possibly a short course. The BCU will be able to supply information on the latter.

MATERIALS LIST

Single-bladed paddle: one off 1,800 × 35 × 35mm for shaft; one off 1,200 × 70 × 10mm for the blade.

Double-bladed paddle: one off 2,500 × 35 × 35mm for loom; four off 465 × 80 × 10mm for blades, or two off 450 × 190 × 4mm plywood.

Pole: 3,700 × 35mm diameter (approx.) bamboo, or 3,700 × 38 × 38mm clear spruce or Columbian pine.

Mast: 2,150 × 50mm diameter at the base.

Boom: 2,200 × 25mm diameter.

Yard: 2,200 × 25mm diameter.

The spars may be bamboo as suggested in the text, or shaped from clear softwood such as spruce or Columbian pine. The actual diameters of the spars are not too important but they should obviously be kept in proportion to the rig.

Leeboard: 1,220 × 200 × 22mm hardwood shaped to an airfoil section below the waterline.

Leeboard stiffener: 400 × 150 × 15mm hardwood or plywood glued and pinned in place as shown.

Leeboard support beam: 900 (approx. depending upon actual dimensions of rubbing strips) × 100 × 22mm hardwood.

Plus small pieces of wood and plywood as shown on the drawing, together with nuts, bolts and washers to suit.

Sail: Cut from a 3,000 × 2,440mm tarpaulin, as shown, or made up – length of cloth required depending upon the available width.

7 Getting on the Water

With you and your canoe by the side of the river or other quiet water ready for the maiden voyage, the first requirement is to check that you are correctly equipped. You and your crew should all be wearing buoyancy aids or life-jackets along with clothing appropriate to the season; the canoe should be fitted with some form of positive buoyancy and have a painter, or line fixed at each end, and your paddles, together with a spare, should be to hand. Kayakers will often wear helmets, particularly if they are paddling waters where a capsize is likely and there are rocks, or a beach on which the kayaker could hit his head. Canoeists should consider wearing a helmet in similar circumstances, although in the event of a capsize the canoeist is more likely to be ejected from the canoe and can float feet first downstream until it is possible to get to the bank.

Let us look at these items in a little more detail.

BUOYANCY AIDS AND LIFE-JACKETS

As with so many items for watersports these are available in a bewildering array of shapes, colours and designs. The difference between the life-jacket and the buoyancy aid is mainly in the ability of the life-jacket to turn an unconscious person on to their back and keep their face above water. The buoyancy aid cannot normally do this and, as its name suggests, it is primarily an aid to the conscious person in keeping afloat while performing the actions necessary to rescue himself. Buoyancy aids are available in different sizes and with differing amounts of buoyancy depending upon both the weight of the wearer and the conditions in which they will be used. The current range of waistcoat styled aids also provide a measure of body protection if you should be dumped into a fast, rocky stream, and some added warmth. It is not proposed to enter into a lot of detail on the various aids because in recent years the EU has taken an interest in buoyancy aids and life-jackets, as a result of which each item should be adequately labelled with its intended use, size and buoyancy; this makes choice easier but may have limited the number of manufacturers wishing to be involved. Check what is available at your local chandlery, or at one of the canoe or boat shows, and do try on whichever type you are considering to ensure it is comfortable and will fit over, or under, your normal canoeing gear. Do not be tempted to buy secondhand at boat jumbles or the like unless the aid or life-jacket has a valid EU label and is in good condition.

Which should you buy? This, as always, is a matter of personal choice, but for children it is sensible to provide either a life-jacket or a maximum flotation buoyancy aid for their size and weight; this type normally has a collar around the back of the neck to assist in maintaining the head above water. A life-jacket is probably best for children who will not be paddling, these are available even for babies. If the child is keen to help propel the canoe a life-jacket may restrict comfortable arm movement so the maximum-flotation aid will be the better option. Adults can choose between the maximum-flotation buoyancy aid or one of the less bulky ‘action’ aids suitable for good swimmers in sheltered waters. Many canoeists tend to choose the latter as being less bulky and thus more comfortable; they are available with open zip fronts, open buckle fronts, or pullover style, plain or with a plethora of pockets and attachments, and, of course, a rainbow of colours. Choosing a bright and thus easily visible colour seems sensible. It is possible to buy very comfortable, self-inflating life-jackets and buoyancy aids, but these do not really have a place in the canoe where the more conventional type provide both body protection and a little extra warmth. Life-jackets, self-inflating or standard type, can provide too much buoyancy for certain situations thus making it difficult for the conscious swimmer to aid himself; most certainly they make swimming an effort.

Where safety is concerned it is far better to be prepared for what may never happen than to have it happen and then have to find a cure. With this in mind do not be tempted on to water that is inappropriate for an open canoe, or for a paddler of your experience. Again, it is worth mentioning the advisability of gaining some experience, either in the company of more experienced canoeists, or by attending a course in the type of canoeing you wish to take up. The BCU has a series of tests which the novice can take to gain some self knowledge of their own ability and while certainly not essential they can be a real help and confidence-builder when you are first taking up canoeing.

CANOEING WEAR

What to wear in the canoe is really much the same as for any other outdoor activity depending upon the weather conditions. In countries whose climates are cool and wet for much of the year (such as Britain, of course) it is advisable to wear clothing that will keep you sufficiently warm and reasonably dry. Serious competitive canoeists often wear a wetsuit or dry-suit of a style to allow free arm movement, but there is no need for the casual recreational canoeist to go to this expense when kitting out.

Legs and Feet

Unless you can guarantee always being able to get in and out of your canoe at a landing stage, or suitable dry bank, you must reckon on getting feet, and possibly legs, wet at some stage of a trip. There are two solutions to this: wear sports sandals, shake the water out when aboard the canoe and let them and your feet dry on the way; or wear sandals and then dry your feet and change into other soft shoes once aboard. To some extent your choice will be dictated by the type of water: the latter course is impractical in any but calm, flat water conditions because your attention will be immediately diverted from your feet! It is inadvisable to wear wellington style boots in an attempt to keep feet dry, they are clumsy to wear in a canoe and could be a problem should you capsize. It is, however, important to wear some form of footwear to protect your feet from the detritus so often left in and around our waterways; even a small cut can be painful and may result in a serious infection.

Moving up from feet and legs, shorts are more practical than trousers for the latter are likely to get their bottoms wet and be uncomfortable while bare legs will soon dry.

Above the Waist

What to wear above the waist rather depends upon the weather, but if it is sunny do take suitable precautions against sunburn including for those exposed legs; the sun tends to be even more burning if you are on water. In wet weather you have several choices; get cold and wet with rain, get warm and wet with perspiration under a waterproof, or purchase a top that will keep out water but allow water vapour (perspiration) to pass through. Which you choose rather depends upon the type of canoeing you anticipate doing and, again, before spending a lot on specialist clothing do investigate what is available and what other canoeists find suitable. Initially a simple cagoule – an approximately calf-length waterproof – of loose fit will suffice; this will keep you reasonably dry to below the knees while sitting or kneeling in a canoe.

One essential in relation to clothing is the necessity of retaining body heat in cold, wet conditions. Once the body gets cold, and this easily occurs when wet, especially if it is also windy, then hypothermia becomes an ever-present possibility. This can be a particular problem for children or people of low body weight; as soon as there is the chance of crew being uncomfortably cold and wet it is advisable to get off the water and into a warm dry situation. For example if you are on a camping trip and conditions are cold and wet, give up for the day as soon as any of the crew begin suffering from the conditions. Common sense will normally tell you when to stop, or when not to start, and this is far better than trying to be heroic in completing a trip and suffering health problems in the process. Always carry at least one complete set of dry clothes in a suitable waterproof bag or container for each member of your party, even on the shortest trip. Finally, if you are a spectacle wearer, or do not wish to lose a favourite pair of sun-glasses, fit them with retaining cords so they cannot be lost should they come off. It is possible to buy special watersports cords which will float if the spectacles do come off and fall in the water.

SPARES AND ACCESSORIES

Positive buoyancy for the canoe has already been covered in earlier chapters, but in addition it is important to fit a painter at each end of the canoe. These can be about 8mm diameter of either nylon or terylene (Dacron) three strand, spliced in place or, perhaps more usefully, three-strand or braided construction and tied with a bowline (a useful general purpose non-slip knot) so they can be removed for other uses if required. Each painter should be at least the length of the canoe for normal flat water canoeing; for rapid river use where you may possibly be wanting to line down an uncanoeable stretch of water the lines should be much longer. Coil each painter, or line, and attach to a convenient point in the bow and stern of the canoe where they will not be able to wrap themselves around legs in the event of a capsize, but where they are accessible to the crew. Do not be put off by these mentions of capsizes: it is perfectly possible to canoe for a lifetime without an inadvertent capsize. You should, however, be aware of the possibility and it is not a bad idea, on a warm day in late summer when the water may also be warm, to find out just how far you can abuse the stability of your canoe, and just how easy it is to rescue it and yourself. The confidence gained from such an exercise will be very helpful when it comes to practising paddle strokes and poling. Children are usually keen to experiment with stability and the limits of a particular canoe – even to the extent of doing handstands in one!

Fig 63 Tying a bowline. This is the most useful general-purpose, non-slip knot.

Youngsters at an Open Canoe Association meet demonstrate their balancing prowess in a Dagger plastic canoe.

Which brings us to the question of a spare paddle. On any serious canoe trip a spare paddle should be carried because in the event of one being damaged or lost the trip would be endangered. As previously mentioned in connection with choosing a paddle it is also advisable, once experienced, to have more than one paddle to meet differing conditions. The spare might therefore be of a different style and thus useful should water conditions change.

LAUNCHING THE CANOE

Now we have completed the equipment check, not forgetting the hot drinks flask and sandwiches, let us launch the canoe.

For this maiden voyage we shall assume a calm lakeside, or similar quiet water with a convenient bank from which the canoe can be launched: the sort of situation that can be found at any one of a number of reservoirs and ex-gravel pits around the country where boating is allowed, or along the network of canals and, many rivers. Launching is quite straightforward, either solo, or with two paddlers.

Hold the painter from the bow in one hand and slide the canoe stern first into the water without allowing it to scrape on the ground. The painter could be tied to any convenient point on the bank using a slippery hitch with the end led back to the canoe so it can be cast off when all crew are aboard, but as a ‘hitching post’ is not always available, you should practise without one. With the canoe in the water, pull it alongside the bank with the bow facing to the right (on a river have the bow facing upstream) and have the stern paddler hold it in position while the bow paddler boards the canoe first.

To board, crouch and place the left foot in the canoe, just left of centre in front of the seat, and lean forward to grasp the gunwales with a hand on each side forward of the bow seat, maintaining your weight on the foot still on dry land. Then transfer your weight to the canoe, bring aboard the right foot placing it alongside the left and sit down on the seat, or kneel in front of it with the buttocks resting against it. Beginners will find kneeling more stable and this position can be made more comfortable either by wearing gardener’s kneeling pads, or by fitting closed cell foam pads to the inside of the canoe in appropriate places. It is advisable to kneel in any but calm, smooth water until experienced enough to decide otherwise. The bow paddler should have placed his paddle either conveniently to hand on the bank, or held it in place across the gunwales while boarding. The bow paddler now holds the canoe to the bank while the stern paddler releases the painter (if not slippery hitched!), coils it and attaches it to its place in the bows within reach of the bow paddler, and boards the canoe in the same way as the bow paddler. When both are ready they can set off.

Fig 64 Securing the canoe to the bank by means of a round turn and a slipped half-hitch.

The reason for boarding in this order is that the bow seat is further inboard than the stern seat and the canoe therefore retains a more stable position than if the stern paddler boards first; because the rear seat is nearer the stern the canoe will be less stable with only the stern paddler aboard. This is also the reason why it is never advisable for the stern seat to be used when solo paddling an unladen canoe. If boarding on a river it is normal to have the canoe heading upstream since it is easier to control the canoe if the effect of the current on the bows of the canoe can be seen. It is also easier for the bow paddler to hold the canoe against the bank in this situation while the stern paddler boards. If boarding the canoe from shallow water, e.g. where there is a shore rather than a bank, follow the same procedure.

Setting off is achieved in any one of a number of ways depending upon the circumstances on the day. Here we shall have to consider a few of the ways in which the single-bladed paddle can be used. We shall not be delving too deeply into paddling and river techniques: there are other books devoted to the subject and it is anyway best learnt on the water from an experienced teacher. However, before delving even a little into the various paddle strokes it must be said that a pair of novice canoeists can usually get into a canoe and begin paddling, albeit not very efficiently, without any instruction at all.

PADDLING STROKES

Paddling strokes can be broadly divided into two classes, passive and dynamic, but before explaining what this means it is necessary first to understand that no boat can be manoeuvred unless it is travelling either faster, or slower, than the water in which it is floating. With the canoe moving at the same speed as the water passive strokes will have no effect; if the canoe is stationary on a river it is, in effect, moving more slowly than the water so a passive stroke can be used in this situation. In general, passive strokes are best not used because they inevitably slow the canoe (but see below), and the dynamic variety are normally more effective.

Dynamic strokes are those that move the canoe to, or away from the paddle; passive strokes are those that affect the movement together of both the paddle and the canoe but only if the canoe is already moving faster, or slower than, the water. From this it will be seen that the faster the river is running the more sensible it may be to have the canoe going more slowly than the water, thus giving the crew greater control. This is particularly apposite in rapid, rocky rivers where it will be necessary to manoeuvre the canoe to follow the safest course (although the novice canoeist will not be attempting such waters of course, unless under expert supervision).

Fig 65 Paddling away from the bank using a stern draw and bow pry.

The correct way to hold the paddle might seem to be obvious but there are options even here. Normally the upper hand grips the top of the paddle by folding the fingers over the grip but it may also be held with the palm vertical rather than horizontal, and while the lower hand normally has thumb and fingers opposed. Pierre Pulling, in his book Canoeing the Indian Way, suggests having the thumb on the same side as the fingers to avoid knocking the former on the gunwale. This does not seem to me to be a very safe grip for other than flat water situations but I could be wrong. It may be I am too set in the ways I learnt as a youth, for my wife as a novice found the Pulling grip comfortable and easy to master. In the following descriptions of strokes the face of the paddle blade refers to the side in front as the blade is used when held as above.

Let us return to our situation on the lakeside. Here the water is stationary so passive strokes are out until the canoe is moving. Assuming the bow paddler is going to paddle on the right and the stern paddler on the left, then the latter can move the canoe away from the bank by performing a draw stroke on the left while the bow paddler does a pry or push away between the canoe and bank until he has sufficient space to begin paddling forward. For the pry stroke, the paddle is held with the face of the blade toward the canoe, vertical, or even a little under the canoe, and is pried off the gunwale by pulling with upper hand. Take care with the pry that the paddle blade is not going to become caught in rocks. The push away is similar but the paddle is pushed with the lower hand rather than pried off the gunwale; this is a slightly awkward manoeuvre which is less effective than the pry.

There are two basic draw strokes: the simplest is to reach out with the paddle blade parallel with the canoe – taken to be the longitudinal centreline of the canoe unless otherwise explained – the face of the blade toward the canoe, dip the blade fully into the water and pull the canoe toward the paddle. This can be repeated until the canoe is in the required position. Take care to slice the paddle blade from the water before it goes under the canoe or there will be a danger of tipping over. If the draw is done forward or behind the pad-dler’s position it will have the effect of turning the canoe toward the paddle.

Fig 66 Paddling away from the bank using a stern sculling draw and bow pry.

The second type of draw stroke is the sculling draw; here the blade is held almost vertically in the water, again in line with the canoe. The blade is then moved left to right and vice versa, using the upper hand on the grip to angle the blade so the working face of the blade is that nearest the canoe. This has the effect of drawing the canoe toward the paddle in one continuous motion. If a draw is done angled toward one end of the canoe it will again have the effect of turning the canoe. A further refinement of the sculling draw is for the stroke to perform a figure-of-eight pattern in the water. All versions of the draw stroke can also be used to move the canoe diagonally sideways.

By this time the paddlers will have sufficient space to begin paddling forward and the canoe can be steered in the desired direction. Forward paddling is fairly self-evident: reach forward with the paddle, twisting the body toward the paddling side, lower arm straight but relaxed, upper arm bent, dip the full length of the blade into the water with the blade at right angles to the canoe (centre line, not the gunwales!), and pull the canoe toward the paddle using the lower arm while the upper arm pushes forward and downward. Remove the paddle from the water as it passes the body position before the lower arm is too bent at the elbow; twist the blade parallel with the surface of the water by turning the upper hand thumb down and return the blade to its forward position by skimming it across the surface of the water. With both paddlers using this stroke the canoe will tend to turn away from the side on which the stern is being paddled; this is because the stern paddler, being nearer the end of the canoe, will have a greater steering effect unless bow is a much more powerful paddler. To overcome this effect the stern paddler has to use a modified forward paddling stroke to incorporate some steering correction.

Fig 67 Paddling forward using the basic forward stroke.

The most efficient way of doing this is for the stern paddler to use what is generally known as the pitch stroke, thought to have been introduced by Calvin Rutstrum, a much-respected exponent of the art of canoeing. This stroke is started in the same way as the forward stroke but the blade is gradually angled throughout the stroke, the inner edge turning toward the stern, until at the end the face of the blade is angled outward; this is achieved by turning the upper hand and the paddle grip outward so at the end of the stroke the thumb is pointing downward toward the water. The blade is lifted edge-on and skimmed across the water surface to its starting position for the next stroke.

While the pitch stroke is efficient, it may not be found the most easy to use initially, and the J-stroke may be found somewhat easier to perform. For this stroke follow the procedure for the forward stroke but toward the end of the stroke the blade is twisted by turning the upper hand thumb down as for the pitch stroke and pushed outward with the lower hand, rather in the form of a letter J, before it is lifted from the water. The paddle may be pried outward against the gunwale – hence the need for padding around the paddle shaft. This is an option which may tend to negate the forward drive of the stroke to a larger extent while having a greater steering effect. The J-stroke is likely to slow the canoe more than the pitch stroke. If the paddle is pried outward at the end of the stroke with its face toward the canoe, i.e. with the upper hand thumb up, the result is known as the Goon stroke; a less efficient stroke than the other steering strokes and one to be avoided.

Fig 68 Paddling forward with bow using the forward stroke and stern using the pitch stroke.

A variation of the J-stroke is the Canadian stroke where, instead of the steering being in the form of a push or pry outward at the end of the stroke, it is achieved by slicing the blade forward through the water at a slight angle, with the face uppermost, during the recovery. The actual angle of the blade can be changed to provide a varying amount of steering correction. Like the pitch stroke, this one may be a little difficult to master but is well worth while since both are far more efficient for solo paddling than the J-stroke.

The canoe is now travelling forward in a reasonably straight line and to introduce a turn there are several options. For a gradual turn toward the bow paddler’s side the stern paddler can simply stop steering, or make his stroke more of a sweep, where the paddle is swept toward the canoe in a quarter circle. The opposite effect is achieved with a quarter sweep at the bow where the stroke is performed away from the canoe. To turn gradually in the other direction the stern paddler can put less effort into his stroke! This may be fine for leisurely canoeing on a placid, flat water river, canal or lake, where the stern paddler is generally responsible for steering, but in livelier conditions quicker action may be required which utilizes the efforts of both paddlers working in concert.

Either paddler can perform a draw stroke as described, and done correctly this stroke will provide a large measure of support so the paddler can lean well out to get plenty of effort into it. This has the effect of pulling the canoe rapidly toward the paddle. Done at both ends at the same time it will result in a rapid turn. For less rapid turns either paddler can do a sweep stroke as described above. This emphasizes the steering effect at either position, thus performed at the bow it will turn the bow of the canoe away from the bow paddler.

Fig 69 Paddling forward with stern using the J-stroke.

Fig 70 Paddling forward with stern using the Canadian stroke.

Fig 71 The effect of sweep strokes at bow and stern.

Fig 72 Turning the canoe with a draw stroke at both ends.

A pry, or push-away stroke will have the opposite effect. Note that each paddler is paddling on one side of the canoe only. Thus if the bow paddler performs a draw and the stern paddler a pry or push away the canoe will slide bodily sideways without turning as described for getting away from the bank, and if they reverse the strokes the canoe will slide in the opposite direction. Note also that if only the stern paddler is steering the stern of the canoe is moved; when both paddlers steer the whole canoe can be pivoted around a centre point. This can be important where hazards are to be avoided and emphasizes the need for both paddlers to be aware of the changing situation and to be able to work together.

Thus far, only dynamic strokes have been considered but if the canoe is starting by a river bank the bow paddler can get the trip started by using a bow rudder stroke. This is achieved by simply placing the paddle blade in the water at an angle to the flow and the effect of the water pressure on the blade will be to pull both the paddle and the canoe away from the bank. If the bank side is the bow paddler’s normal side for paddling and his paddle is held correctly for this and he uses it on the ‘wrong’ side the stroke becomes a cross bow rudder. A stern rudder is where the paddle blade is held in the water at an angle of about 30 degrees. This is probably the only time it is worthwhile using these strokes for although all three strokes can be used in any situation where the canoe is moving relative to the water they will obviously have greatest effect when the difference in relative speeds is greatest. This highlights the problem with passive strokes: if canoe and water are moving at almost the same speed the stroke will have little effect and since the stroke is passive it will always have the effect of slowing the canoe. Most of the strokes considered in this brief survey can be, and often are, used in combination to provide a particular desired effect on the movement of the canoe. For example a forward stroke might be combined almost unconsciously with a partial or inverted sweep, to make a turn. Finally it is necessary to be able to stop the canoe, or make it travel backwards and to do this it is necessary to master the back paddling versions of the forward paddling strokes, together with their steering versions. It is usual when back paddling to use the back of the blade as the face, thus maintaining the normal grip on the paddle and allowing other strokes as required by the situation. Solo canoeing offers the most challenging form of paddling, mainly in controlling the canoe in rapid water, and/or windy conditions. The strokes already described for doubles will also be used by the solo paddler, especially the various steering strokes. It will be found easier to start the canoe moving if short, rapid strokes are used initially, possibly with a firm pry at the end of strokes as necessary to keep straight. Once the canoe is moving, control becomes easier.

Fig 73 Getting away from the bank using a bow rudder, or cross-bow rudder.

Fig 74 At the bow a partial sweep stroke will pull the bow of the canoe toward the paddle; stern is paddling forward using J-stroke. A diagonal draw at the bow might be more effective.

Fig 75 Going in reverse, or stopping the canoe by back paddling.

When, with practice, control is achieved, there is considerable pleasure gained from the ability to make the canoe perform by paddling entirely on one side except when changing sides to bring into use alternate muscles. Changing sides occasionally is a good idea whether paddling solo or double, and you will quickly become ambidextrous with the paddle. Thus it is possible for the solo paddler to turn the canoe toward the side on which it is being paddled by combining a forward draw with a pitch, Canadian, or J-stroke, and ending with a pry or push-away, in effect a full semi-circular version of the inverted sweep.

Before leaving this brief look at paddling strokes a mention should be made of the underwater or Indian stroke. This is a variation of the pitch stroke, where instead of bringing the blade out of the water and skimming it forward across the surface, it is returned to the beginning of the stroke by turning the paddle so the blade can be passed edge-on through the water with the paddle being rotated so the back of the blade is used for the next stroke. This stroke can be performed very quietly so is ideal for observing wildlife.

Fig 76 The Indian stroke, where the paddle is reversed so the back of the blade becomes the front when it reaches its forward position.

In general, the situations where it is necessary to take particular care will be a matter of common sense but never ignore the dangers inherent in deep water. Avoid going under bankside trees with overhanging branches where these are near the water; it is very easy to become entangled and less easy to escape. Be wary on faster water when approaching bends where it is not possible to see what is around the corner: be prepared to stop quickly, and if in doubt disembark and take a look at what is ahead before proceeding. Take care with locks on canals and rivers, and do not approach weirs until you are completely competent and have sufficient experience to deal with the particular problems they involve; the dangers are often such that even the most experienced canoeist will portage around.

POLING

Poling the canoe is something of a specialist activity. Many canoeists go through their canoeing life without ever trying it but on the assumption that one should try everything once, or at least be aware of its existence, I will give brief details. Since it is but one small aspect of this book suffice it to say that the beginner should choose both quiet, shallow water and a warm day for the first attempts, and be prepared to get wet initially! Standing in the canoe is actually less difficult than might be thought, for the pole itself is an aid to balancing.

Demonstrating the use of the bamboo pole in an Old Town plastic canoe. Note how the hands are placed on the pole, upper lifting and lower pressing downward.

Take up a stance a little to the rear of centre in the canoe. Assuming still water, or upstream travel (poling is often the most efficient method of getting upstream in a canoe), face diagonally toward the side on which you will be poling with one foot ahead of the other to the left of the centre line of the canoe and the other comfortable behind this to the right of the centre line. Experiment by using the pole as a balancing aid; stay relaxed and move the canoe from side to side, get the feel for the limits to which the canoe can be pushed before tipping you out. There are two points to remember when poling: do not swing the pole out like a paddle to begin a new stroke, and do not place the pole ahead of your position in the canoe.

Start poling by keeping the canoe stationary against the current, if any. Have the pole at an angle of between 30 and 45 degrees to the water with the lower hand pressing down on the pole and the upper lifting it; keep the pole as near the gunwale as possible without touching. To move the canoe, push backward with the pole against the bottom and as the pole lifts off the bottom behind you, take it from the water and bring it forward for the next stroke. Drop the pole in the water at the poling position, slide the upper hand down the pole and bring the lower hand to the top and repeat the push. Keeping straight is a matter of pushing and pulling on the pole, mainly with the lower hand. It will probably be found easier at first to allow the canoe to move forward slightly angled toward the poling side.

To turn the canoe to the right, push the stern of the canoe to the left; to turn to the left push on the other side. When downstream poling the pole can be used as a rudder. In faster water use shorter strokes or jabs of the pole. Where the water becomes too deep for poling use the pole as a single- or double-bladed, paddle until the water shallows. Travelling downstream, retain the same relative position so the upstream end of the canoe remains just clear of the water. To slow the canoe, snub the pole on the bottom ahead of the canoe.

SAILING

The possibility of sailing the canoe is an activity more likely to captivate the interest of the average canoeist than poling. When recreational canoeing first started in the nineteenth century, sailing was a preferred option; the motto of the Open Canoe Sailing Group (OCSG) neatly sums up the attitude of those early canoeists and the growing membership of the OCSG: ‘Sail when you can, paddle when you must’. Sailing a canoe is much the same as sailing a small dinghy except that steering is done with a paddle on the weather side rather than with a conventional tiller and rudder, unless, of course, you wish to fit your canoe with these.

The first requirement for the sailor is to know the direction from which the wind is blowing. Have the canoe facing into the wind and rig the sail; check that the lee-board fittings and on-board buoyancy are in good order. The sail will be flapping in line with the wind; to commence sailing lower the leeboard (the one on the lee side if two are fitted), and hold the sail out against the wind with a hand on the boom. This will have the effect of making the canoe sheer off with the wind on the side to which the sail was held; holding the sheet, allow the sail to go out until it is just beginning to flap, now pull in the sheet until the sail fills and steer to maintain this position relative to the wind. Sailing is always relative to the wind, hence the primary need to know its direction. The canoe is now sailing close-hauled, i.e. as nearly into the wind as is possible with that particular combination of canoe, sail and leeboard. Steer away from the wind a little and let the sail out to remain filled: this is known as ‘reaching’. Further steering away from the wind until the sail is almost at right angles to the canoe is termed ‘running’.

Fig 77 The canoe held head to wind ready for sailing off.

Fig 78 The sail held to windward to make the bow of the canoe shear off to allow the sail to fill on the starboard side.

Fig 79 Sailing close-hauled to windward.

Fig 80 With the sail freed off a little, the canoe is turned a little more off the wind to sail a close reach.

Fig 81 The sail is freed off more and the canoe turned to almost at right angles to the wind, and is now broad reaching.

Fig 82 With the wind blowing from behind the canoe and the sail well out the canoe is running.

To turn the canoe, gradually pull in the sail and steer toward the wind until the sail flaps and then fills on the other side; allow the sail to go out to its previous position but now on the other side of the canoe: this is ‘tacking’, i.e. turning with the wind coming toward the canoe. Turning with the wind behind the canoe is ‘gybing’, a less easy method of turning which, performed wrongly in strong winds, can result in a capsize for the unwary. To gybe, turn down wind until the canoe is running with the wind coming from almost behind; have it slightly across one shoulder or the other to make it easier to control the sail. Then steer away from the wind while at the same time pulling in on the sheet until the wind fills the sail on the other side; it will try to do this with a jerk, depending upon the wind strength. Allow the sheet to run out to the same point as it was on the other gybe and steer accordingly.

Sailing a canoe does render the canoeist liable to the same official sailing rules as those applicable to dinghy sailors and yachtsmen so if you propose sailing in crowded waters, or to race against others, it is your responsibility to learn the rules and apply them while sailing, just as the motorist learns the Highway Code. Basically sailing craft keep out of each others’ way relative to their size, e.g. it is easier for a dinghy than it is for a yacht to manoeuvre in a narrow river so the dinghy gives way to the yacht. Allow craft taking part in a race right of way if possible. If a sailing boat has its sails across the port (left) side it is on starboard (right) tack, i.e. the wind is blowing from the starboard side, and it has right of way over craft on port tack. Overtaking craft should generally keep clear of the craft being overtaken. Do obtain a copy of the basic rules, or read a book that gives them and then apply them with common sense. Power craft should in theory keep clear when you are sailing but very often the crews of these craft, especially the smaller ones, have no idea of the rules, or of the dangers inherent in roaring round and round a canoe. All you can do in this situation is keep your head, make your way into shallow water and try in future to avoid waters where such ‘water hogs’ proliferate. Finally, at the risk of being boring, iet me reiterate the recommendation to obtain on-the-water instruction, or training, before venturing forth in your new canoe.

8 Transportation, Storage, Camping and River Access

We have considered how to launch and paddle your canoe but unless you are lucky enough to live with paddleable water at the bottom of your garden, or within carrying distance, you will need to think about the logistics of getting your boat to the water. It is possible to tow a short canoe like the ‘Bliss’ on a bicycle trailer, but for anything more than a few miles most people forget the green and healthy option and turn to the family car.

CAR ROOF RACKS

Transporting one canoe presents no problem to the car owner for there is a choice of roof racks available which will serve more than adequately. When buying a roof rack specifically with the intention of carrying a canoe do ensure that it has adequate fittings to hold it firmly attached to the roof of the car. A canoe on the roof of a car, even when inverted, presents considerable windage, especially when being driven at motorway speeds, and if it takes off carnage could result. The type to buy is sometimes called a ‘ladder rack’, which consists of transverse bars sliding through, or fitted into end fittings which attach to the car gutters, or what, on more modern cars, has replaced the gutters. The two bars should be attached to the car roof as far apart as possible to give the greatest possible spread of the load fore and aft. This will help prevent the canoe trying to ‘see-saw’. Pad the bars with split neoprene sponge rubber tubing to protect the canoe gunwales: the lagging tubes used for domestic water pipe insulation will serve but these do wear out fairly quickly. Old towels or strips of other similar fabrics wrapped around and well tied at intervals with string will do the job equally well if less neatly.

Fixing the canoe to the roof rack is straightforward; use proper straps, or terylene (Dacron) rope, with one strap, or length of rope for each roof rack bar. Use separate straps or lengths of rope to ensure safety if one should break. With rope use a trucker’s hitch to secure the canoe firmly on the rack, but not so firmly that the canoe risks damage. If you are concerned to avoid damaging the varnish or paintwork on the canoe, pad the rope with soft cloth where it crosses the hull, but this should not be necessary if using straps. Have another rope at each end to secure the canoe via the painter holes to the car itself, utilizing the towing eye at each end of the car. These are rarely on the centre line of the car, and may not even be in line with each other, but should be satisfactory in preventing the ends of the canoe from trying to lift themselves off the rack. If it is possible to get two fixings, especially at the front, forming an inverted-’V, this is helpful in preventing the canoe from swinging left and right. Another option here is to have a couple of ropes from each end of the canoe leading back to the extreme ends of the bars of the roof rack; with long canoes, or short car roofs, the angle may too acute for this to be very effective. Also helpful in preventing the canoe from swinging about on the rack are the vertical roof-rack fittings which are intended to support kayaks while being racked on their sides. The canoe can be securely held against these supports by its hold-down ropes or straps.

The DD23 ‘Bliss’ canoe fitted on to a roof rack with two lines securing it to the rack and one at each end securing it to the car.

Fig 83 The trucker’s hitch, a useful hitch for tightening down a lashing.

Fig 84 The canoe secured to a car roof rack with straps over the canoe fastened to the roof rack and ropes at both ends fastened to the car.

Paddles can be carried in the car if sufficient space is available, or they can be tied under the seats, or thwarts, in the canoe so when the canoe is inverted on to the roof rack they are on top of the underside of the seat framing or thwarts. Items such as poles and spars can easily be tied down to the roof rack alongside the canoe; paddles could be carried like this too but are best hidden in the canoe, especially if they are well made and attractive looking! It is possible to obtain locking systems rather like those for cycles to ensure that the canoe cannot be removed from the rack, or the rack and canoe from the car. One of these could well be worth while for it is not unknown for whole canoe and rack assemblies to be removed while the driver and crew are absent.

PORTAGE

Car and roof rack will get you, your crew and the canoe to the chosen water but what if you have a need to transport the canoe during a trip? In canoeing language, such a move is called a portage and requires either picking up the canoe and walking with it as was done by the original voyageurs in North America, or placing one end upon a trolley, and again walking. I have seen a kayaker tow a folded kayak and all his camping equipment with a folding bicycle all of which then fitted into the erected kayak. For a rigid canoe the most convenient ‘vehicle’ for a longish portage, where suitable tracks exist, will be the small folding trolley which permits the canoe to be pushed or pulled. While quite sophisticated versions of these can be bought one can be made fairly easily and quite inexpensively depending upon the cost of the wheels.

The portaging trolley shown unfolded and ready for use.

There are several ways of making a folding portage trolley but the one suggested here uses a minimum of materials, is simple to build and light to carry in the canoe. Fig 85 is largely self-explanatory and the dimensions of the materials used, including the type and size of the wheels, can be varied to suit whatever is available. However, the suggested construction procedure is as follows:

1.  Cut the piece of timber chosen for the wheel-arms at an angle of 45 degrees in the centre. Glue on the axle blocks and when the glue has cured bore the holes for the axle bolts which should be a tight fit. The blocks can then be shaped as shown.

Fig 85 The folding portage trolley. Suggested timber dimensions are given in the materials list in the text.

The portage trolley shown folded.

2.  Make up the centre wheel support beam and bore the holes as shown. Ensure that those for the wheel arms are at right angles to the beam or the arms will not fold correctly; use a piece of scrap wood as a spacer when boring the horizontal holes. Bore the second hole in each wheel arm 165mm from the axle bolt hole.

3.  The arms can now be bolted into the centre beam. Fit the axle bolts and spread the arms until the outer ends of the bolts are about 5–10mm lower than their inner ends. Place the arm stops in position on top of the centre beam and mark these positions; the stops can be glued and pinned on top of the beam, or halved into the beam for additional security. Unbolt the frame and fix the stops in place.

4.  Make up the keel support; note that the two shaped strips are to raise the ply supports just enough to match the deadrise of the canoe. Bore the holes in the centre beam and the keel support and bolt them together; mark each side of the keel support on the centre beam. Unbolt the keel support then glue and pin the two locating pieces at the marks.

5.  Cut the two wheel arms to length and at the correct angle to match the centre beam as shown.

6.  Finish the trolley to choice with either varnish or paint and fit a pair of canoe securing straps at each end of the keel support. These straps can be either fastened directly to the support with a plywood pad under the screws to prevent the latter pulling through the straps, or the straps can run through small metal loops or wooden blocks shaped to accept them. It is advisable to drill a small hole through each of the bolts used to enable a split ring to be fitted to prevent the nuts from being lost.

To fold the trolley, the two wheel arms with the wheels in position should be tucked under the centre beam, and with the centre wing-nut loosened, the keel support can be swung into line with the centre beam. If the wing nut is then retightened the trolley will remain folded.

Trolley Materials List

Wheel arms: one off 460 × 35 × 22mm

Axle blocks: two off 50 × 35 × 22mm

Centre beam: two off 600 × 35 × 22mm

Centre beam block: one off 75 × 35 × 35mm

Stops: two off 80 × 35 × 7mm

Locating pieces: two off 80 × 22 × 7mm

Keel support beam: one off 600 × 75 × 12mm

Shaped pieces: two off 600 × 5 × 4mm

Ply-strip keel supports: two off 600 × 30 × 4mm (optional)

Axle bolts: two off, non-ferrous, with four nuts, or two lock nuts, length and diameter to suit the wheels

Wheel arm bolts: two off, non-ferrous, 100 × 6mm with washers and four nuts, or two lock nuts

Centre bolt: one off round headed, non-ferrous, 65 × 6mm with washers, including a lock washer, and wing nut

Two straps to suit

Two wheels of 150–200mm diameter

Waterproof glue, brass panel pins, varnish or paint to choice

STORAGE

Storage of the canoe at home is not usually a problem if a garage is available. The ‘Bliss’ has been designed with the intention that it should fit comfortably into a normal length garage. The most simple method of storage is to have a couple of rope loops hanging from the rafters, or from a pair of very secure hooks screwed into the rafters, into which the ends of the canoe are lifted. Do ensure that the loops are set up sufficiently far in from the ends of the canoe to offer secure support. A safety line joining the two loops under the keel is probably a sensible precaution to prevent the loops slipping, or have the canoe inverted in the slings so the latter will tend toward the centre rather than off the ends.

Slightly more complicated is a rack with cantilevered arms on which the canoe can rest. Such a rack might consist of two vertical members with a pair of canoe supports screwed to them with the whole being securely screwed to the garage wall. Not being very optimistic about items screwed to brick walls, my own racks have long verticals which hook over the garage rafters adjacent to the wall with the canoe supports fastened to these at an angle of about 80 degrees; thus when the rack is loaded the vertical members lean in at the bottom to touch the wall and the canoe supports approximate to a little less than 90 degrees so the canoe tends to lean inwards toward the wall.

CAMPING EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES

Camping equipment as such deserves a brief mention because while many readers may already have some such equipment it may, or may not be ideally suited for canoe camping. The basic requirement is the provision of shelter to provide both warmth and a dry bed at the end of the day.

Fig 86 A canoe storage rack bolted to the wall of a garage or workshop. A securing rope is fastened over the canoe to prevent it being dislodged. Typical timber dimensions might be 50 × 25mm with lengths to suit the circumstances. A plywood gusset glued and nailed at the corner gives added security.

Tents

Tents are available today in as wide a range as any camper could desire and the canoe camper can pick and choose. Since the majority of canoe camping is done in fairly sheltered areas there is no need to opt for an expensive tent suitable for mountain camping. The canoe is also easily packed and can carry relatively bulky items so minimum size and utmost lightness is not essential unless you are reckoning on doing a lot of portaging, when it is worth remembering that all the gear will have to be carried. As already mentioned in connection with paddles, buying lightness can be an expensive business.

Bedding

Bedding will normally be a sleeping bag; the best types are those with a synthetic filling for if this type does get wet (and it should not if your packing arrangements are satisfactory) it can be fairly easily dried. Fortunately synthetic fillings also equate to the least expensive bags. If you already own a down bag confine its use to non-canoe camping unless you can guarantee keeping it absolutely dry. Sleeping bags with synthetic filling and simple tents can relatively easily be home-made but this is once again outside the scope of this book.

Fig 87 An optional method of arranging the canoe storage rack is to have the vertical members hooked over the garage rafters. Construction is otherwise similar to the rack which is bolted to the wall.

Some form of sleeping pad is almost essential once bones are past Boy Scout/Girl Guide age and there are again a number of options. Whichever you choose make sure it does not involve the use of open cell foam in its construction unless this is completely sealed in an impervious cover for once this type of foam is wet its weight multiplies several times and it takes forever to dry. The self-inflating type of mattress does utilize open cell foam but this is properly sealed inside the cover (otherwise the self-inflation would not work), so should be perfectly satisfactory for the canoe camper. Just do not try inflating it under water! The closed cell foam pads much used by back-packers offer not only excellent insulation from cold ground and reasonable comfort, but also buoyancy when securely fastened into the canoe. Inflatable mattresses, when correctly inflated, are quite comfortable but can be cold with only the compressed under side of a sleeping bag between it and you; they are heavy too and offer nothing in the way of buoyancy unless kept partially inflated when packed.

Cooking Equipment

Cooking equipment must include a stove, for while a camp fire may sound romantic, and indeed may be pleasant to sit by on a cool dry evening, it is an uncertain means of cooking unless in very skilled hands. Few campsites will, in any case, allow a fire these days and at the end of a tiring, possibly damp day on the river the last thing most canoeists will wish to do is to have to find fuel for a cooking fire, let alone trying to light one. The type of stove you choose will doubtless depend upon the sophistication of the cooking proposed. A single-burner, bottled gas, or liquid fuel stove will suffice for simple meals and, with experience, even quite complex ones. My personal choice here is for one of the spirit stoves which comes complete with a couple of cooking pots, a frying pan, and a kettle. These are not the most efficient, or cheapest to run, but they are very quick to set up, light to carry and reasonably compact. The fuel they use, methylated spirits, can be obtained relatively easily at hardware shops and chemists, and if spilt it evaporates quickly without leaving either long-lasting stains or smells. There are also no empty canisters to carry, or be found a safe, tidy home.

WHERE TO CAMP

So far as actual campsites are concerned it is a question of making the most of whatever offers itself at the right time of the day. In general it is unwise to camp on islands in rivers or lakes because of the likelihood of their being prime sources of midges and similar blood-lusting bugs. Towpaths should be avoided where possible, especially near built-up areas for they often become popular dog walks in the evenings. The corner of an empty field is fine but do try to obtain permission: what was an empty field in the early evening could be full of recently milked cows an hour or so later.

WATER ACCESS

In general, rivers in England and Wales are private property with no right of way for any form of boating. Exceptions are those rivers that are recognized as navigations, or that have been used as navigations in the past; examples of these are the Thames, Severn, Stratford Avon, Great Ouse, Trent and Wye. This is not to say that the whole length of the river is designated as a navigation, and often a licence will be required before a boat can be legally used on them. River access in Scotland is somewhat easier: Scottish law, as it so often does, differs on this point from its southern counterpart.

This situation presents problems for the canoeist. It means you cannot take your canoe to the nearest river, paddle along it to a convenient point, and take it out. If you do try to do this you could find yourself threatened with court action by a river bailiff, or merely be cursed by an irate fisherman. On most English and Welsh rivers, especially the more desirable canoeing rivers, the riparian owners are anglers, or have rented or sold the fishing rights to angling associations and these rights are rigorously guarded. In some cases access agreements have been negotiated allowing use of the river on certain dates. Canoeists unaware of such existing agreements and attempting to use the river at other times could jeopardize the future amicable coexistence of all the interested parties. There is not space here to explain all the niceties of river access but the BCU has regional advisors who should be contacted to give current advice on the local situation if you are in any doubt as to your right to canoe a particular stretch of river.

In the main the whole access situation is completely unsatisfactory for canoeists and what is really required is legislation which puts rivers on the same footing as footpaths to enable non-polluting small craft such as canoes and kayaks to use all British rivers in the same way as walkers use footpaths. It is worth noting here too that even if canoeing is allowed on a particular river it is still necessary to obtain permission for access to the river. If public access is available at a car park, roadside, or a ford for example there is obviously no problem, but in other cases it will be necessary to ask the landowner or farmer for permission to cross private land. If no public car park is available nearby do take care to park where your car will not cause an obstruction to other road users and do bear in mind that even narrow lanes may be used by commercial and farm vehicles which are far wider than a car and your car may suffer if it is left in the way.

Lakes generally come into the same category as rivers, that is they are either privately owned, or access is controlled by a body such as the National Trust, or one of the water companies. Usually, if boating is allowed, access will be granted via a day or season ticket, or by becoming a member of a club which oversees the use of the facility and ensures that any regulations are enforced. Canals are mainly under the administration of British Waterways and thus require the purchase of a licence before boating on the canal is permitted; BCU membership includes a licence which covers most of the canal system throughout England and Wales.

Estuaries and harbours form another category. In general, the former can be canoed without access problems arising other than possibly having to pay a launching fee for the use of a slipway where there is no convenient beach. Most harbours are quite closely supervised and you may be charged a fee for canoeing within the harbour, for launching, or for both. The only problem likely to arise concerning harbours is the extent of their jurisdiction; that said, many will not be too bothered about a solitary canoe encroaching upon their waters. Do not be too put off by river access restrictions; many thousands of canoeists enjoy their pastime each year without problems. However, do use common sense; if you are paddling a river used by anglers keep away from the bank being fished, keep clear of fishing gear, cause as little disturbance as possible, and pass quietly, complying with any reasonable directional requests. Remember the angler has probably paid handsomely for the privilege of fishing the river while you are just passing freely – we hope.

9 Repair and Maintenance

One of the prime advantages of the canoe over most other small craft is that it is always ready to get afloat whenever the weather is right, regardless of the time of year. The implication of this is that your canoe should be in a fit state to be put on the roof rack at a moment’s notice and this should not be difficult to achieve. The amount of repair and maintenance a canoe will require depends entirely upon the way in which it is used. If the canoe is paddled only on quiet, flat water it is unlikely to receive more than the occasional scrape to its paint or varnish, and the interior is probably going to require as much attention as the exterior. If, however, the canoe is used regularly on rapid rivers it will obviously have a much harder life and may well require repairs during the season in addition to an annual re-fit.

How might damage be caused? Even thin plywood is quite tough except when it is hit at right angles, or near enough so, by a sharp object. If the skin is impacted sufficiently hard by such an object in this way it will probably result in a puncture of the skin. This is the type of damage that can occur if you are swept sideways on to a rock, or if the canoe is dropped off a wave so its bottom comes down vertically on to a rock.

SKIN DAMAGE

Unless the impact is very hard, a skin puncture is likely to be surrounded by slightly fractured plywood with the puncture in the middle of this area. A temporary repair to this type of damage can usually be made by using an adhesive repair tape.

Fig 88 Typical impact damage which might be caused to the bottom panels of the canoe.

Push the plywood back to its original shape as far as possible then use adhesive repair tape in accordance with the maker’s instructions. If no instructions are given it will be advisable to get the plywood as dry as possible to ensure maximum adhesion. Apply a non-hardening sealant to the punctured area before applying the tape to both sides of the skin.

Where the damage is of a significantly greater extent than can be covered with tape it will be necessary to apply a plywood patch. Clean the area of damage of any loose pieces of wood and cut a plywood patch to cover the area with a minimum overlap of about 25–30mm all around the edges. If possible, have a second patch of the same size to fit on the inside of the skin (this will make for better screw fixings than if one thickness only is used). On the outside of the skin apply a sealant and screw the patch down over this with non-ferrous screws at about 30mm centres around the edges of the patch. This makes a practical if unsightly temporary repair. There are a whole range of sealants to suit different situations with new ones coming on to the market every year. The old standby, Sealastic, is rather old fashioned now but it does work and, if you already have a tube on your shelf, by all means use it. Your local chandler will probably be able to recommend a suitable modern type, or ask other canoeists what they are using. Obviously, patching with plywood requires you to carry a few small offcuts and tools but these will form only a small additional load and be very much appreciated should they be needed. Trying to patch real holes with tape is usually doomed to failure for the water pressure will almost certainly overcome the tenacity of the tape adhesive. Incidentally it is a help if the edges of the small patching pieces of plywood are ready-chamfered.

Repairs such as these are essentially ‘get you home’ expedients which should be replaced with proper permanent repairs as soon as possible after the completion of the trip. Fortunately repairing plywood canoes neatly is not difficult and pride may be taken in effecting a repair which is near invisible – at least from the outside.

Fortunately the interior of a canoe is easily accessible so there is no problem in adding a patch to the inside face of the skin. Let us assume the canoe has been holed in the bottom panel near the bow. The first part of the repair procedure is to remove all broken pieces of plywood and to make the area of the repair into a neat, regular hole rather than a ragged puncture. Obviously the neat hole should be kept as small as possible; the shape is not too important although it tends to be easier to fit the patch if it is a regular shape such as a square or diamond for example.

The really meticulous repairer may wish to give the hole feathered edges on the inside of the skin so the patch, also with matching feather edges, will fit over the hole to seal it even without an inner patch:

1.  First cut the hole with square edges then mark the extent of the feather edges around the exterior of the hole; about 10mm will be enough if sufficient space is available. Prepare the feathering using a chisel and possibly a small plane.

2.  Cut out a patch of the same thickness plywood as the skin to fit the outer extent of the feather edges with its exterior grain matching the direction of the skin grain. Feather the edges of the patch to match those of the hole until a good fit is obtained. If the patch encroaches upon the glass-fibre tape and resin laminate cut the latter away as necessary and retape when the patching is completed.

Fig 89 The damaged area cut away to give a regular shape, in this case with feathered edges. The dotted line indicates the extent of the internal strengthening patch.

3.  Make an interior patch a little larger all round than the fitted patch and shaped to fit its position in the hull, e.g it will look neater if its edges are angled to match the edges of the panel to which it is being fitted. Round off the corners and chamfer the edges which will be on show; roughen the face to be glued.

4.  Make a temporary patch which will cover the shaped patch already made to fit the hole. Glue the feather edges of the patch and position it in the hole; place a piece of polythene over it to prevent the temporary patch adhering to it and place the temporary patch in position.

5.  Pin this temporary patch in place on the hull with pins placed outside the area of the shaped patch, and pinned through to the inner patch which is glued to both the patch and the surrounding hull. Hold a dolly or heavy hammer inside the hull while pinning.

Fig 90 Section through the repaired area while it is being glued showing the temporary external patch which helps hold in place the feather-edged patch.

Fig 91 A repair patch with square rather than feathered edges. It should be glued in place with a temporary external patch in the same way as the feather-edged patch.

6.  When the glue has cured remove the temporary patch, sand the area of the patch and finish to match the surrounding skin.

The internal plywood patch could be replaced with a layer of thin glass-fibre cloth and resin laminate which will look neater than the ply patch and probably be equally as strong providing the surrounding ply is taken back to bare wood. A similar procedure is followed without the feather edges except that in this case the patch is made to fit the square-edged hole; not necessarily easier than making a feather edged hole but probably less time consuming.

Damage which has not resulted in an actual puncture is probably best repaired by pushing any declivity back into line with the skin and cladding the inside with a strengthening laminate of glass-fibre tape or cloth and resin. The outside should be faired with an epoxy/filler mix left a little proud. When this has cured it can be rubbed down to fair with the surrounding skin. Obviously before this procedure can be carried out it will be necessary to remove all paint or varnish from the skin in the area where the damage has occurred. It is a waste of time and effort applying resin or a laminate to anything but bare, roughened plywood, as sooner or later it will peel off if layered over paint or varnish.

OTHER DAMAGE

After skin damage the most likely parts of the canoe to suffer are the gunwale and the seats or thwarts.

Gunwale

If the rubbing strips have been clad with a glass-fibre tape/resin laminate they will not suffer very much from normal wear and tear; however, a single-thickness rubbing strip is more susceptible to impact damage than a gunwale made up of rubbing strip and inwale. In the event of a rubbing strip being actually broken it is almost certain that the plywood in the immediate area will also be damaged and this can be dealt with as already discussed. A temporary repair can usually be made by nailing, or screwing, a new section to the underside of the old; this crude repair will help prevent further damage occurring as the gunwale ‘works’. A permanent repair to the gunwale will involve scarfing in new wood as necessary. A scarf of between four and eight times the thickness of the wood is usual and traditionally the new timber is scarfed under the forward section of old timber and over the rear section. However, it is easier to make the scarfs if both ends of the new timber are overlapping the old.

1.  The first step, as always, is to remove the damaged wood from the area, cutting back to the first sound section each side of the actual damage.

2.  Mark the length of the scarf at each side and draw in the sloping lines delineating the scarfs. Cut back to these lines using plane and chisel, taking care not to cause further damage to the plywood skin. If the damaged area is on a particularly curved section of gunwale it may be necessary to replace a longer length simply to ensure that it will take up the correct curve; to get short lengths to conform correctly in such positions is notoriously difficult.

3.  With the scarfs cut in the existing rubbing strip, hold a new section of strip under the old and mark on it the lines of the scarfs. Cut it to length and plane the scarfs with frequent checks back to the canoe to ensure that a good fit is obtained.

Fig 92 A broken rubbing strip. A temporary repair may be made by screwing a strengthening piece under the broken section.

Fig 93 Method of making a permanent repair to a broken rubbing strip by scarfing in a new section. Where the break is on a particularly curved part of the gunwale the new section may be laminated in situ and left over thickness. It can then be planed to the correct thickness and shape after the glue has cured.

4.  Glue and pin into place with pins or annular-ring boat nails through the plywood of the hull, and either temporary screws, or boat nails, into the existing rubbing strip through the scarfs.

5.  When the glue has cured remove any temporary fastenings and finish the new section to match the old. In the event of a double gunwale being damaged in a similar way, deal with both the rubbing strip and the inwale in the same way but have one new section longer than the other so the scarf joints do not coincide on both rubbing strip and inwale. Where an open gunwale is involved arrange the inwale scarfs to come on spacers.

Seat and Thwart

Seat and thwart damage will usually result from careless usage, or possibly in a rough water situation, and in either case it will be sensible to repair the damaged section with a stronger replacement. Worthwhile temporary repairs are difficult since seats and thwarts are, by their function, load-bearing. In the case of a seat it may be better to try supporting it on a gear bag, or lashing a piece of wood or branch across it to permit kneeling against it rather than sitting on it. This applies similarly to a damaged thwart, although if this has broken away at one end it may be possible to arrange a temporary secondary support at that end. In any event treat the canoe a little more gently since it will be lacking the support given by the seat/thwart concerned. A permanent repair will present no problems since all that needs to be done is to re-fit a stronger seat or thwart as already described in Chapter 5.

Paddles and Sailing Gear

Gear failures are less important since you should be carrying a spare paddle, and although broken sailing gear or a pole is annoying at the time, they are not likely to be major catastrophes. Paddles can be repaired in the field but are best left until they can be properly dried and dealt with in the comfort of the workshop. If it is merely a question of a piece being broken off the blade it can continue to be used and a new section can be glued in place back in the workshop after it has been allowed to dry and the damage cut away. When replacing sections of wood do not try to get a perfect fit before the new section is glued into place. It is far easier to allow the new to stand a little proud of the old surface and to plane or spokeshave it down to a perfect fit after the glue has cured.

A broken shaft is beyond repair in the field and while it is perfectly possible to scarf a new section into the shaft it is probably better to rescue the blade, and possibly the hand grip, and fit these to a new shaft. If you are tempted to scarf-joint the shaft it will be necessary to do so by cutting a long V from one piece and a matching tongue in the other, rather in the way a cricket bat handle is fitted to the blade. Accurate work is essential if the result is to withstand vigorous paddling! The joint can be strengthened by cladding with glass-fibre tape/resin laminate although it may be felt that this detracts from the workmanship displayed in the scarf joint.

THE REPAIR KIT

The essential items for the repair kit are:

•  Adhesive tape.

•  Some offcuts of plywood the same thickness as the hull ply.

•  A tube of sealant.

•  A small box of non-ferrous screws and panel pins.

•  A length of glass-fibre tape and some resin which could be used for overnight temporary repairs.

•  A small hammer.

•  A saw, which could be a mini-hacksaw.

•  Pliers.

•  Scissors capable of cutting the glass-fibre tape.

•  A screwdriver to suit the screws being carried.

A penknife and some lengths of cord are taken for granted! You should be able to cope with any temporary repairs which may be called for with these few items packed into a plastic box or suitable bag. Do ensure that the box or bag is securely fastened in the canoe.

ROUTINE MAINTENANCE

Maintenance of a stitch-and-tape plywood canoe is a very straightforward business. At the end of each trip, before putting the canoe away on its rack or slings, take the time to rinse it inside and out with clean fresh water; dry it with a sponge, and preferably store it inverted so any water remaining will drain out. These rinsing sessions will give the opportunity for you to notice when the finish is getting sufficiently worn to warrant another coat of paint or varnish. When this is necessary it should only take a rub down with a fine-grade abrasive to prepare the surface for its finish. Where the finish has been badly abraded, with deep scratches for example, re-touch these areas first before rubbing down and in this way they will become invisible under the full top coat. This will generally be the only regular maintenance required; after a few years it may be felt that the build-up of paint or varnish is such that it should be cut back and this can be done either by hand, or with an orbital sander and the canoe refinished as already described. If it is used with reasonable care, looking after your canoe will not be an onerous affair.

Glossary

THE CANOE

breast hook The horizontal knee fitted into the bow (and stern) of a canoe at gunwale level.

chine The angle formed by adjacent hull panels in a plywood craft.

deck In a canoe, the solid timber knee fitted in the bow and stern in place of the breast hook, or a plywood deck fitted over a breast hook.

gunwale The strengthening timber which forms the physical sheerline.

inwale The internal longitudinal member fastened inside the skin of the canoe at the gunwale.

keel The centre longitudinal member to which are fastened the stem and stern post. Not applicable to stitch-and-tape construction.

knee A roughly triangular strengthening piece fitted into ‘corners’ of boats.

open gunwale A form of construction where the inwale and the side of the canoe are separated by spacers with intervening gaps. In a ribbed canoe, the ribs form the spacers.

outwale See rubbing strip.

painter The rope attached to the canoe.

rubbing strip (outwale) The external longitudinal member fastened outside the skin of canoe at the gunwale.

sheerline The upper edge of the sides of the canoe; particularly when viewed from one side.

thwart A cross-member in the hull which helps hold the sides in place. May be utilized as a support while paddling in the kneeling position.

SAILING RIG

block Encased pulley wheel to allow a rope to run freely around an angle.

boom Length of light wood, aluminium alloy tube or bamboo, to which is fastened the two lower corners of the sail, thus extending the foot of the sail.

clew Rear lower corner of the sail.

foot Bottom edge of a sail.

halyard Rope used for hauling the yard, and thus the head of the sail (or the peak of a triangular sail), to the top of the mast.

head Upper edge of a four-sided sail.

leech After (rear) edge of a sail.

loose-footed Describes the foot of the sail when it is not laced to the boom but fastened at tack and clew only.

luff Leading (front) edge of a sail.

mast step Small drained box into which the heel, or tenon, formed at the heel of the mast, fits.

peak Top corner of a sail.

sheet Rope fitted to the after (rear) end of the boom and used to control the sail.

tack Forward lower corner of the sail.

tack downhaul Rope fitted to the forward end of the boom of a balance lug sail, and used to hold down the end of the boom and maintain the yard at the correct angle.

throat Upper front corner of a four-sided sail; above the tack.

yard Length of light wood, aluminium alloy tube or bamboo, to which the head of the sail is laced.

SAILING

beating Making way against the wind by tacking.

close-hauled Sailing as close to the wind as possible, i.e. with the wind from ahead, between about 10.30 and 1.30 on a clock face when the boat is heading towards 12.00.

gybing (jibing) Changing direction while running or reaching so that the wind remains from behind the boat but the sail changes to the other side.

heading The direction in which the boat is pointing.

leeboard Aboard hung vertically over the side of a boat to prevent leeway.

lee side The opposite side from the direction of the wind.

leeward (Pronounced ‘loo’ard’.) The same direction as the wind is blowing.

leeway Sideways movement of a boat induced by the wind.

port The left side of the boat when facing forward.

reaching Sailing with the wind on one side, from about 1.30 to 4.30, or 7.30 to 10.30 on a clock face when the boat is heading toward 12.00

running Sailing with the wind from behind, roughly between 4.30 and 7.30 on a clock face, boat heading toward 12.00

starboard The right side of the boat when facing forward.

tack (either port or starboard) One section of a series of tacks made while tacking/beating to windward.

tacking pointing as close to the wind as possible with the wind on one side of the sail and coming from between about 10.30 and 1.30 on a clock face; boat heading toward 12.00, then changing the heading of the boat to bring the wind on the other side of the sail. A means of making way against the wind.

windward Towards the direction from which the wind is blowing.

windward side The side of a boat towards which the wind is blowing.

Useful Addresses

When writing for information to any of these associations or individuals, it would be helpful to include a self-addressed and stamped envelope, or an international reply coupon from overseas.

MAGAZINES, CLUBS AND ASSOCIATIONS

British Canoe Union
John Dudderidge House
Adbolton Lane
West Bridgford
Nottingham NG2 5AS
Also suppliers of various publications,
including current titles.

Canoeist
4 Sinodun Row
Appleford
Abingdon
Oxfordshire OX14 4BR
Magazine, also supplier of in-print canoeing
books including guides and maps.

Canoe-Camping Club
25 Waverley Road
South Norwood
London SE25 4HT

Historic Canoe & Kayak Association
Am Kurpark 4
37444 St Andreasberg
Germany

Open Canoe Association of Great Britain
30 Bishops Avenue
Worcester WR3 8XG

Open Canoe Sailing Group
Holme Lea
Angerton
Kirkbride
Carlisle CA5 5HX

Wooden Canoe Heritage Association
PO Box 226
Blue Mountain Lake
New York 12812, USA

SUPPLIERS

Bradshaws
Freepost 39
Nicolson Link
Clifton Moor
York YOl 1SS
Reinforced woven polyethylene tarpaulins
suitable for making into sails.

Bruynzeel Multipanel (UK) Ltd
East Industrial Estate
6 Freebournes Road
Witham
Essex CM8 3UN
Plywood.

Dalton Young Associates
Apple Trees House
Water Lane
Golant
Fowey
Cornwall PL23 1LF
New and secondhand boating books.

C. & D. Davis
9 Great Burrow Rise
Northam
Bideford
Devon EX39 1TB
Antiquarian and out-of-print canoe,
kayak, and small boat-building books.
Also available is a comprehensive list of
English-language canoe and kayak books
from the nineteenth century to 1995.

Marine & Industrial Sealants
8 Westwick Hill
Westwick
Norwich NR10 5BQ
Paints, varnishes, adhesives and sealants.

Mobile Adventure Ltd
Bridge Works
Knighton Fields Road West
Leicester LE2 6LG
Canoeing accessories including spare
parts and repair kits.

Robbins Timber
Merrywood Road
Bedminster
Bristol BS3 1DX
Can supply all of the materials required
for building the ‘Bliss’, including epoxy resins.

S. Silverman & Son (Importers) Ltd
(Head Office) Sterling Way
Borehamwood
Herts WD6 2BP
Plywood and timber suppliers with four
depots covering the UK.

Strand Retail
Scott Bader Company Ltd (Head Office)
Wollaston
Wellingborough
Northants NN9 7RL
Polyester resins and glass-fibre products.
Several retail outlets in the UK.

Trylon
Thrift Street
Wollaston
Northants NN9 7QJ
Polyester resins and glass-fibre products.

Wessex Resins & Adhesives Ltd
Cupernham House
Cupernham Lane
Romsey
Hants S051 7LF
Epoxy resins, glass-fibre products

Further Reading

This is a representative selection of mainly practical canoeing books. There are many others both in and out of print which the canoeist will find of interest.

Adney, E.T. & Chapelle, Hi, The Bark Canoes and Skin Boats of North America, Smithsonian (Washington DC, 1964). The book on bark canoes and skin boats with numerous drawings taken from the actual craft. Reprint currently available in paperback.

American Red Cross, Canoeing, Doubleday & Co (New York, 1956).

2nd reprint, 1977, with drawings replacing photographs. Soft cover. Excellent introduction with the emphasis on safety.

Bailie, M, Canoeing and Kayaking, The Crowood Press (Marlborough, 1991).

Currently available in paperback; well-illustrated beginners’ guide.

Bliss, W., Heart of England by Waterway, Witherby (London, 1933).

Rapid Rivers, Witherby (London, 1935). Both of these Bliss books are classics on open canoeing in Britain.

Canoeing, Methuen (London, 1934). Reprint. This is ‘how to’ and ‘where to’ but somewhat outdated now.

Bridge, R., The Complete Canoeist’s Guide, Scribner’s Sons (New York, 1978).

A useful general introduction from the American viewpoint.

Bowker, R.M. & Budd, S.A., Make Your Own Sails, Macmillan (London, 1957). A ‘standard’ on this subject. Various reprints.

Bull, J., Sail Your Canoe, Cordee (Leicester, 1989).

Conover, G., Beyond the Paddle, Tilbury House (Maine, 1991).

Large paperback with excellent section on poling.

Davidson, J. & Rugge, J., The Complete Wilderness Paddler, Knopf (New York, 1975).

Takes the reader through the planning and execution of a wilderness canoeing trip.

Fisher, P., Sail Making for the Home Boat-builder, Paul Fisher (1990).

Franks, C.E.S., The Canoe & White Water, University of Toronto Press (1977). Reprints.

Rather more than just a ‘how to’ book, it considers the whole relationship between the canoe and the environment.

Gidmark, D., The Algonquin Birchbark Canoe, Shire Ethnography (Aylesbury, 1988).

Paperback on how the birchbark is made.

Gilpatrick, G., Building a Strip Canoe. Includes information on making cane seats.

MacGregor, J. A. 1,000 Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe, Sampson Low, Marston, Low & Searle (London, 1866).

Numerous reprints. The book which began recreational ‘canoeing’.

McGuffin, G. & J., Where Rivers Run, Stoddart Publishing Co. Ltd (Canada, 1988).

Canoeing Across Canada, Diadem Books (London, 1990). Reprints. New edition of the above.

McPhee, J., The Survival of the Bark Canoe, Farrar, Straus, Giroux (New York, 1975). Reprints.

Includes a selection of Adney’s sketches (See Adney & Chapelle).

Manley, A., Rushton and his Times in American Canoeing, The Adirondack Museum & Syracuse University Press (1968).

Currently available in paperback.

Mason, Bill, Path of the Paddle, Key Porter Books (1984 paperback).

Currently available.

An excellent book on paddling techniques.

Song of the Paddle, Key Porter Books (1988).

Currently available in paperback.

More on North American canoe camping and travelling than paddling techniques.

Pulling, P., Principles of Canoeing, Macmillan (New York, 1954) Reprints.

Canoeing the Indian Way, Stackpole (Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 1979).

Currently available in paperback.

Riegel, F. & Raffler, D., Canadian Stroke Guide, Pollner Verlag (Oberschleissheim, Germany nd).

24 ring-bound card pages, 12 pages are halved so front and rear paddle strokes can be shown in various combinations. English text.

Riviere, Bill, Pole, Paddle and Portage, Van Nostrand Reinhold (1969).

Reprints.

The Open Canoe, Little Brown & Co (Boston & Toronto, 1985).

Paperback.

Very good descriptive material on the various types of open canoe.

Roberts, K.G. & Shackleton, P., The Canoe, International Marine, (Maine, 1983).

Coffee table sized book on the complete history of the canoe in all its various forms.

Rutstrum, C, North American Canoe Country, Macmillan (New York, 1964).

Reprints.

Evocative writing on North American canoeing and tripping.

Stelmok, J. & Thurlow, R., The Wood & Canvas Canoe, The Harpswell Press (Maine, 1987)

Paperback. How the wood-canvas canoe is built; includes three canoe plans.

Stephens, W. P., Canoe & Boat Building, Forest & Stream (New York, 1884).

Reprints.

The drawings that accompanied this book have been republished in large paperback form by the Mystic Seaport Museum Press 1987, currently available.

Tiphys’, Practical Canoeing, Norie & Wilson (London, 1883).

Includes details that are still interesting to the serious canoe sailor.

Twining, P., Sailing, A & C Black (London, 1994).

Slim paperback in the Know the Game series.

An inexpensive guide for the newcomer to sailing.

A number of the above books are out of print and some are difficult to source although it may be possible to obtain them on loan via the Inter Library Loan Scheme. Those stated to be currently available were so at the time of writing, but if recently out of print should be fairly easily obtainable as secondhand copies.

Index

addresses 137–8

African mahogany 30

alignment 42, 44, 47

aluminium oxide paper 74

Balcotan 37

barrier cream 31, 35

baseboard 39, 41

beam 21–3

bedding 124–5

Blandford, P. W. 18

Bliss, William 7

boarding 104

books 139–41

boom 91, 114, 135

bottom, flat 13, 24, 27

flat-V 25, 27

round 23

shallow curve 21, 24, 25

bottom panels 38, 45, 46

bowline l02, 103

British Canoe Union 6, 7, 99, 101

buoyancy 26, 51, 67–70, 114

Built-in 67–8, 99

inflatable 68, 69

plastic drum 68

polystyrene 68

buoyancy aid 100–1

camping sites 126

canals 127

canoe, all-wood 6, 12, 14, 25, 54

aluminium 14, 15

birch bark 9–12, 22

Canadian 6, 12, 14

cedar wood 10

clinker (lapstrake) 9, 11, 19

dugout 8

fibre–reinforced plastics (FRP) 19, 23, 25

folding 16

glass–reinforced plastics (GRP) 14, 16, 23, 25

lapstrake (clinker) 9, 11, 19

moulded veneer 16

Peterborough 12, 16

plastic 19, 103, 113

rib and batten 12

stitch and tape 18, 19, 26, 27

strip–planked 16, 20

wood–canvas 6, 11, 13–15, 22, 25

Canoe Club, The 9

canoe rack 123, 124, 125

capacity 24, 26, 27

Cascamite 37

catalyst 34, 37, 45

centre of effort 98, 99

chamfer(ed) 43, 130

child(ren) 19, 54, 100, 101, 102

chine 26, 34, 45, 135

chine panels 38, 46, 47

clew (sail) 91, 135

close–hauled 115, 136

clothing 101–2

clove hitch 93

Columbian pine 30, 91

control (paddle) 85–6

cramp (tool) 49

cross–section 22, 23, 24, 26

DD23 (photos) 17, 27, 47, 54, 60, 77, 119

deck(s) 14, 26, 35, 36, 51, 52, 68–74, 76, 135

design 20–7

dimensions 34, 37, 53, 92, 96

epoxy resin 30, 31, 35, 37, 45, 46, 68, 131

estuaries 127

EU 100

Exeter Maritime Museum 18

face mask 35, 73

feathering(paddle) 86

filleting 37, 45, 46, 68

fineness 21, 25

flare 21

folding kayak 10, 16

foot (sail) 91, 135

fullness 21, 25

g–cramp 32, 39

gluing 31, 35, 41–2

gunwale(s) 13–15, 21, 22, 25, 26, 30, 48, 50, 135

gybe 117, 136

halyard 93, 135

hand grip (paddle) 81–4

harbours 127

hardener 34

hardwood 30, 57

hatch(es) 67

head (sail) 91–3, 135

helmet 100

hull panels 32, 34, 37–9, 41

Inuit 8, 23

inwale(s) 13, 14, 35, 48, 54, 55, 68–74, 76, 135

jig saw 28, 32

kayak 6, 8, 12, 19

Kayel canoe 18

Kayel kayak 16

keel 21, 23, 25, 26, 135

‘key’ 34

knee(s) 32, 35, 47, 52, 135

kneeling 25, 52, 54, 105

label 37

lakes 127

laminate 27, 35, 43, 83, 131, 134

launching 104

layout 37–9, 53

lee side 95, 114, 136

leeboard 95–9, 114, 136

leech (sail) 91, 135

leeway 95, 136

length 20, 23–6

lifejacket 100–1

Littledyke, K. 16, 18, 19

load 20, 24, 26

luff 91, 135

MacGregor, John 8, 9

maintenance 134

marking gauge 32, 39, 40

marking out 32, 37–9, 55

mast 91–5

mast step 92, 95, 135

materials list, canoe 36–7

paddles, etc 99

portage trolley 123

model 36

mould 19, 25, 34

Open Canoe Association of Great Britain 6, 103, 137

Open Canoe Sailing Group 6, 95, 114, 137

open gunwale 13, 14, 70–1, 135

paddle, double bladed 85–8

single bladed 54, 78–85, 106

paddle strokes:

back 112

bow rudder 110

Canadian 109, 112

cross bow rudder 111

draw 106, 109, 110

dynamic 105–13

forward 107

Goon 109

Indian 112

inverted sweep 112

J–stroke 108, 112

passive 110–11

pitch 108, 112

pry 106, 110, 112

push away 106, 110, 112

sculling draw 107

stern rudder 111

sweep 109, 110

paddling 23, 25

paint 31, 32, 49, 75–7

painter(s) 26, 35, 50, 100, 102, 135

passenger 52, 54

patch (repair) 129–31

peak (sail) 92, 135

pencil gauge 32, 39, 40, 81

plane 28, 32, 39

plastic gloves 31, 35, 77

plywood 27, 28, 30, 34, 35, 37

birch 29

exterior 29

Far Eastern 29

marine 28, 29, 35

pole, aluminium 89

bamboo 89–91

FRP 89

timber 89, 91

poling 113–14

polyester resin 16, 30, 31, 34, 35, 37, 45

port 117, 136

portage trolley 120–3

materials list for 123

pressure bar 39, 41, 42

Pulling, P. 106

reaching 115, 116, 136

reading list 139–41

recurved ends 21, 22, 26

repairs, permanent 129–34

temporary 128–29, 132–34

resin 31, 34, 35, 45, 51

rigid kayak 10, 16

riser 26, 35, 54–7, 59

river access 126–27

Rob Roy 8, 9, 10

rocker(ed) 23, 25

rolling hitch 93

roof rack 30, 35, 118, 119

Royal Canoe Club, The 10

rubbing strip 13–15, 26, 30, 35, 46, 49, 52, 67, 69, 76, 131–2, 135

running (sailing) 116, 136

Rushton, J. Henry 11

Rutstrum, Calvin 108

sail 91–4, 114

sailing 114–17

scarf joint(s) 32, 39–42

scarf line 39, 40

seams (chines) 34, 45

seat 26, 27, 52, 54, 70, 133

cane 30, 35, 62, 64

fitting of 54–64

frame of 30, 35, 56–61

plywood 26, 51, 56–61, 94

seagrass 61–3

webbing 30, 35, 61–2

sheer 21, 22, 23, 26, 37, 46, 54, 135

side elevation 21, 22

side panels 38, 46, 47

silicon carbide paper 74

sliding bevel 57, 58

slippery hitch 104

softwood 30, 35, 56

spar gauge 82, 83

spars 91–4

speed 26, 27

Spruce 30, 91

stability 23, 24, 25, 104

final 25, 27

initial 25, 27

starboard 115, 136

stem 22, 52

stern 22, 26

stiffeners 42–3

stitch(ing) 43–6

stopper knot 93

stoves 125–6

stroke, see paddle strokes

styrene 31

Surform 32, 50

tack (sail) 91, 93, 135

tack downhaul 93, 135

tacking 97, 116–17, 136

tape (glass–fibre) 27, 30, 31, 34, 35, 37, 45, 51, 73, 131

taping 34, 45–6, 50, 51, 67–8

template(s) 42, 43, 58

tents 124

throat (sail) 91, 135

thwart 26, 27, 52, 54, 55, 64–6, 70, 133, 135

tools 32, 33

trucker’s hitch 118, 119

tumblehome 21, 23, 27

ultra–violet 35

Umiak 8

varnish 31, 32, 49, 75–7, 84

vinegar 31

weather side 97, 114

wet and dry paper 74, 77

wetting–out 35

whipping 89, 90

white water 15, 19, 21, 23, 26, 27

Wooden Canoe Heritage Association 6, 137

yard 91–4, 99, 135